Profile - Cecily Neville Part 1 1415-1460

The 80 years of Cecily Neville's life would see her family's power rise, fall and rise again as she became wife of a pretender to the English throne, mother to the two Yorkist kings, and grandmother to the first Tudor queen. Cecily, however, would tragically outlive her husband and all of their 13 children.

'ROSE OF RABY'

Cecily Neville was born on 3 May 1415 at Raby Castle in Durham as youngest daughter to parents Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, and Joan Beaufort with Cecily's good looks rewarded with the sobriquet 'Rose of Raby'. Her maternal grandparents were the English prince, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, and Katherine Swynford. The family connections to the Beauforts would see Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry Tudor, as Cecily's second cousin.

Ralph Neville had become the royal warden of Richard, Duke of York after York's father, Richard of Conisburgh,  was condemned to death in 1415, and the young duke arrived at Raby Castle in December 1423 to live with the Nevilles. Cicely's father betrothed her to York in October 1424 at the expense of 3,000 marks to the crown to release York from his wardship. Cicely was 14 years-old and York was 18 when the couple married in October 1429 and would remain married for 31 years with Cicely bearing 13 children, seven of whom survived childhood.

Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire was a favourite family residence

York's vast estates would see Cecily live in Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire and Baynard's Castle in London. The contented marriage saw Cicely follow her husband to France and Ireland during York's time in office. Rouen in France would see the births of Cecily's eldest living sons Edward and Edmund and second living daughter, Elizabeth, between 1443 and 1444.The third living son, George, was born in 1449 in Dublin, Ireland and Cicely would bear children across 17 years and daughters Anne, Margaret and youngest son Richard were all born at Fotheringhay Castle. This would indicate that Fotheringhay Castle was the family's favourite residence.

Cicely was renowned for her piety, attending eight services a day, and this would make a mockery of later Lancastrian propaganda that slandered her as an adulteress with the rumour that Edward IV was born a bastard to Blaybourne, a French archer. The Duchess would vehemently protest against this slander and Cicely's own pride and temper would bring her the nickname 'Proud Cis'.

LADY PROTECTOR

The Duke and Duchess of York attended the wedding of King Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou in May 1445 and the queen would show court nepotism at Duke of York's expense. Cecily's first cousin, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, replaced York as Lieutenant of France but wasn't able to emulate York's time in office as France reclaimed Normandy along the English Channel coast.

Southern England was fearful of a French invasion and Jack Cade led an unsuccessful rebellion against the king and his "friends". Cade appealed to York supporters by calling himself Mortimer after York's ancestors and demanded that Henry VI removed his friends or the king would be replaced by York if this wasn't done.

York had no association with Cade but the rebellion caused many at court to ponder whether York was going to claim the throne when he travelled from Ireland to England in September 1450. York protested his allegiance to the king and demanded Somerset's arrest over France. Henry VI initially agreed but the queen intervened and duly promoted her court favourite to Captain of Calais. York was in turn given a much the lower ranked title of Justice of the Forest South of the Trent. 

Cecily's nephew, Earl of Warwick, originally supported his Beaufort relatives

A frustrated York returned to his estates. Cecily, pregnant with Richard, may have encouraged York to reassert his power and birthright which led to her husband gathering troops and marching on London but he would find the capital gates locked. York reached Dartford in Kent and faced off against the royal troops including Cecily's brother, Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury and his son, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. York looked for peace and demanded Somerset's arrest but the queen intervened once again.  

Margaret of Anjou was incensed to see Somerset being carried away in chains and a showdown in the royal tent saw Queen Margaret demand York's arrest instead. The Duke returned to London being paraded like a prisoner at the head of the royal party.

Cecily and the queen met at the shrine of Our Lady of  Walsingham

Cecily came to her husband's defence and the queen agreed to hear the Duchess' pleas for clemency at the shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham in Norfolk. The Duchess would later write to the queen and praised the meeting where Cecily surmised that her husband's "infinite sorrow and unrest of heart" caused him to be "estranged from the grace and benevolent favour" of the king. Cecily's plan worked as the queen stopped pursuing York's imprisonment but York he was publicly humiliated at St. Paul's Cathedral where he swore an oath of allegiance to the king. 

York was mindful of his own father's fate and withdrew to his estates once again to spend time with the family. York also provided much needed support to his in-laws in their land disputes with Somerset and Neville's northern rivals, the Percies. 

The royal couple welcomed their long-awaited heir in 1453 when the queen gave birth to Prince Edward. Henry VI was unable to acknowledge his son's existence after the king descended into a severe bout of mental illness following England's heavy loss at the Battle of Castillon. England needed a leader as York returning to court and was elected Lord Protector in March 1454. York brought much needed order and appointed his brother-in-law, Salisbury, as Chancellor and his nephew, Warwick, became Captain of Calais.

York's control of government didn't last long as Henry VI regained his senses during Christmas 1454 and Somerset, imprisoned in the Tower by York, was released. Parliament was to reconvene in Leicester in May 1455 and York saw this as a ruse by the queen to arrest him. Cecily's brother and nephew joined her husband and intercepted the royal army at the First Battle of St. Albans where Somerset was killed and the king captured. 

Cecily's brother successfully fought off a Lancastrian charge at Blore Heath

York would return as Lord Protector after Henry VI relapsed towards the end of 1455 and a rejuvenated king kept Warwick on as Captain of Calais after Henry VI recovered in 1456. The queen would now target Cecily's nephew with charges of piracy and a suspected murder plot against Warwick, further antagonising the Yorkist and Lancastrian divide. York and the Nevilles gathered troops and met at Ludlow in October 1459 after Salisbury had defeated a portion of the royal army at the Battle of Blore Heath en-route to Shropshire.  

DESERTED

Henry VI led his troops to just south of Ludlow and offers of royal pardons proved too tempting to York's army as Warwick's Calais troops commanded by Andrew Trollope, defected. The Battle of Ludford Bridge proved to be bloodless after York abandoned his army and fled the battlefield. York took Edmund, now Earl of Rutland, to Ireland whilst Edward, now Earl of March, joined his uncle and cousin in fleeing to Calais. 

Cecily and her children were captured in Ludlow Market Square

Cecily was left to defend Ludlow with her three youngest children and they were discovered by the Lancastrian army at Ludlow Market Cross. Cecily pleaded for clemency once again and was placed under the care of her sister Anne, Duchess of Buckingham, and her husband, the Lancastrian commander, Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham.

The Duchess of York and her youngest children stayed with the Buckinghams at Tunbridge Castle in Kent and it's close proximity to Calais would have allowed possible secret communications between Cecily and her eldest son. Cecily, like seven years before, defended her husband at court and asked for a royal pardon. She was unsuccessful in preventing her husband, brother and nephew being given an Act of Attainder which forfeited all their lands and titles. The queen, possibly remembering the time at Walsingham, may have taken pity on Cecily and the defunct-Duchess was granted £600 a year to support herself and her children.

Cecily resided in London at Banyard's Castle before York returned to England

Cecily's nephew and husband met in Ireland during the spring of 1460 to plan a return to England and Warwick, Salisbury and Edward landed in Sandwich on the Kent coast in June 1460. Salisbury held London and welcomed his sister to the capital as she took up residence in Banyard's Castle following the Yorkist victory at the Battle of Northampton. Warwick and Edward faced the royal troops in July 1460 near Northampton where treachery would allow March to take the vanguard and breach Lancastrian defences. The Lancastrian commanders were taken by surprise once the Yorkists were behind the front-lines and Buckingham would die defending the king who would once again be captured and brought back to London.

QUEEN-IN-WAITING

York returned to England on 8 September 1460 and immediately sent word to Cecily for the married couple to meet at Hereford. Cecily travelled to the west country in a charriot or litter dressed in blue velvet and carried by eight horses. York likely discussed his intentions of claiming the throne with Cicely at Hereford and, wIth Margaret of Anjou fleeing to Scotland, Cecily acted every part of a queen as she carried the royal arms during her husband's procession to London.

The Duke and Duchess of York reunited in Hereford before proceeding to London

Her husband's bold move in claiming the throne from Henry VI got little support in Parliament including Warwick and Salisbury who weren't aware of York's plan. A compromise in Parliament was struck in late October 1460 with an Act of Accord declaring York as heir-apparent and disinherited Prince Edward. York and his heirs would now take the throne once Henry VI died and Cecily became a queen-in-waiting. 

Word soon spread that Margaret of Anjou was courting Scottish support and the Percies were raiding the Yorkshire estates of York and Salisbury. York sent Edward to the Welsh Marches to rally the troops, Warwick held London and York took Edmund and Salisbury north to face the Lancastrians. Cecily gave her husband and son a fond farewell in early December 1460 and expected to welcome their return in the New Year. This never happened and Cecily was devastated when she heard of the deaths of her husband, second son and eldest brother at the Battle of Wakefield.

Life in 15th Century England - Part 2

Life in medieval England was varied but centred around commerce, crime, punishment, healthcare and living accommodations. 

HOUSING

An Englishman's home is his castle and nothing indicated social class more than medieval housing. The Norman Conquest in the 11th Century led to castles being built throughout England and the original timber motte and bailey castles were soon replaced with imposing stone fortresses. Castle architecture in the 15th Century had developed into the Perpendicular Medieval Gothic style with fan vaulted ceilings, timber-trussed hammerbeam roofs and decorative designs carved with chisels.

A castle dissected and displaying it's various rooms

The focal point inside a castle or manor house was the Great Hall where guests were wined and dined. Torches, candles and a fireplace illuminated the room with stone floors covered by carpet or mats. The walls of the Great Hall were decorated with gold paint, tapestries, shields, banners and paintings whilst wooden panelled wainscot lined the room walls. The castle air would be perfumed with sweet herbs such as lavender, camomile or rose petals to mask the pungent smells coming from the privy. 

The Great Hall was furnished with a main table positioned on a dais that was surrounded with chairs painted with the heraldic designs often in red, green, white, yellow and black colours. Other guests sat on wooden benches around trestle tables which would allow a quick removal for after-meal entertainment or sleeping area for servants.

Lords and Ladies slept upstairs in the Great Chamber or Solar that was named after the sun shining through the south faced windows. The solar was also used as a private sitting room and was furnished with beds, chairs and chests. Personal servants also slept in the solar on a portable pallet for added protection.

A bower would provide privacy for a Lady

The solar was connected to the bower room and was used by the Lady of the House and her ladies in waiting for embroidery, reading and music. The bower would be decorated with colourful tapestries, furs and pillows and the withdrawing room would later be renamed the drawing room. Clothes and jewels were kept in the wardrobe room that was connected to the solar and was an improvement from the original garderobe where clothes were kept in the latrine to deter moths.

Prayers were expected four times a day and would range between five and 30 minutes. Mass would be heard in the castle or house chapel and the small oratory room attached to the chapel would provide sanctuary for a private prayer. The oratory would be richly decorated with beautiful altar clothes and rich religious tapestries. 

Medieval oratories would have been similar to this German one

The castle was a symbol of power and had to be protected from enemies. Archers would be perched in the crenels on the battlements on top of the castle and would reload behind the stone merlons. The battlements also provided an ideal vantage point for defenders to view their oncoming enemy and the Duke of York likely weighed up his options looking down on to Wakefield Green from the battlements of Sandal Castle on the morning of 30 December 1460. York would later venture out on to the field in front of the castle and would meet his death there at the Battle of Wakefield.  

Wakefield was one of many towns throughout England with towns and villages consisting of farmers and tradesman living in houses and barns sheds clustered around the centre of the village. Commoners lived in houses of one or two rooms that were covered with thatched roofs and built together with wooden frames filled in with wattle and daub that consisted of strips of wood woven together and covered in a 'plaster' of animal hair and clay.

A medieval townhouse

More affluent towns had houses made of stone which were whitewashed or painted in bright colors with wooden shutters letting in the sunlight. An open fire was used for cooking and heating In the middle of the straw-covered earth floor and commoners sat around on benches or stools. Wooden table and chests stored clothes and other valuables while tools and utensils were kept on hooks. Rush lights dipped in animal fat illuminated the room animal fat.

Commoners were either free men or as "villeins" who bound to the land, working heavy labour for their lord and were subject to feudal dues. Village life was busy for both sexes and women would toil in the fields, wearing simple dress and living on a meager diet.

Outside influences would affect village life as trade began to spread as people began to be drawn to bigger towns and cities.

COMMERCE

The annexation of Flanders by the Burgundian empire allowed English traders to have easy access to exotic imports such as silks and spices. Merchants were soon protected by treaties and government troops whilst the workers banded together to form Guilds. A wide range of trades formed these guilds including bakers, butchers, grocers, millers, smiths, carpenters, weavers, masons and cobblers. Industry standards such as weights and measures were governed by the guilds and inspectors would visit shops to ensure compliance. The guilds would also assist members who were sick or in trouble and would often take care of families following a member's death.

A smith shows of his wares

Traders would teach their knowledge and skills to apprentices would also act as their master's domestic servant and helper. Upon completion of the apprenticeship, the relevant guild would certify them as journeymen who would travel across towns to learn more about the trade.

Market stalls in the town square

The market square would be at the centre of a medieval town and would hold markets at least once a week where local merchants would set up stall and sell their wares. Fairs were held several times a year and would attract foreign merchants into bringing fine wool, silks, spices, carpets and other items from far away lands. These fairs would last for days and would often attract performers such as strolling minstrels, performing tumblers, acrobats, and animal acts with trained bears and horses. 

CRIME & PUNISHMENT

The growth in population led to an increase in crime and the evolution of English justice from the Magna Carta would see juries of 12 men or a justice of the peace pass judgement. 

Gaols would generally be used to hold prisoners awaiting trial and Richard III's brief reign saw judicial reform that looked to protect the rights of the accused. Those who couldn't afford legal representation could have their cases heard by the Privy Council and the court would later be known as the Court of Requests. Bail legislation was also reformed to protect suspects from being imprisonment awaiting trial and asset seizure whilst ordering the translation of Laws and Statutes into English.

Petty crimes resulted in public shaming and humiliation

The sentences handed out to convicts would often involve severe punishments that looked to deter others from doing the same. Petty crimes resulted in being placed in the stocks to be publicly humiliated and shamed, stealing food to survive was punished with a hand being chopped off. More serious crimes would lead to punishment by death with heresy punished by being burnt at the stake, murderers were hanged and traitors would be executed by being hung, drawn and quartered in public as a deterrent.

The barbaric punishment of being hung, drawn and quartered would see the condemned hanged until they were half dead, taken down, and quartered by having their limbs torn by horses pulling them apart. The convict was still alive when their genitals and bowels would be cut from their bodies and thrown into a fire until finally being killed by decapitation.

Traitors would often be displayed as a warning to others

The body parts of traitors were often displayed as a warning to others like Jack Cade's torso being sent to the four corners of the rebel's home county of Kent and the decapitated heads of the Duke of York, Earl of Rutland and Earl of Salisbury were displayed on spikes atop of Micklegate Bar in York.

HEALTH

The Black Death had ravaged England in the 14th Century and fears of it returning were never far from the minds of those across all social classes. The wealthy would often live longer than the poor due to the unhygienic common living quarters of the commoners where a village or town street would be littered with human and animal waste. The town's sanitation would involve buckets of waste being thrown into the street whereas the wealthy were able to rid of their waste down the privy chute into a nearby moat or stream.

Monasteries had provided healthcare and lodging for the infirm for centuries but the lack of regular hospitals would lead to traders doubling up as doctors that included barbers as surgeons and gave rise to the village apothecary.

Health was often governed by the stars

The theory of the Four Humors from Greek doctor Galen was practiced over a millennium later and the unbalanced humors would be treated with blood letting either through piercing the skin or leeches. Religion, superstition and medical ignorance saw health governed by the stars and death or disease being reasoned by God's wrath in the form of omens. Such omens included the Solar Eclipse on the day of Queen Anne Neville's death or the rise of the sweating sickness after Henry Tudor had landed with French mercenaries in 1485 to claim the throne. 

Life in 15th Century England - Part 1

Life in medieval England was varied but was dominated by by religion, food, drink and entertainment.

RELIGION

Christianity was the only religion in 15th Century England and was practiced as the Catholic denomination. The church dominated the life of every social class whether it be peasant, serf, noble, lord or King and the religious institutions of monasteries and convents grew in power.

Lollardy spreads across in England in the 14th (blue) and 15th (red) centuries

Those who found the Catholic faith overbearing and corrupt became part of the Lollard movement which challenged traditional values such as priest confessionals. The movement was led in the late 1300s by John Wycliffe and supporters included KIng Henry V's friend, Sir John Oldcastle. Oldcastle was imprisoned for his beliefs in 1413 and plotted to kidnap the king after escaping. Oldcastle's rebellion failed and Lollards were persecuted following Oldcastle's execution. Lollardy would later influence Protestantism in the next century but was driven underground in the 1400s after spreading across the southern and middle England.

Medieval monks practiced the three main vows of poverty, chastity and obedience by renouncing all worldly goods and spent their lives working under a strict routine. This routine would include worship, reading, farming and manual labor. Monks ate a simple diet of bread and meat with pallets filled with straw for beds. Nuns spent several hours in private prayer in convents whilst their education was closely screened by the Church. A nun would be tasked with several tasks and chores which included cooking, cleaning, weaving and illuminating manuscripts.

A Medieval monk would divide their day into the eight sections of the prayer book Book of Hours that were meant to be read at specific times of the day. Each section contained prayers, psalms, hymns, and other readings intended to help the monks secure their salvation. Matins would be recited at 2am, Lauds at 5am, Prime at 6am, Terce at 9am, Sext at noon, Nones at 3pm, Vespers between 4-5pm and Compline at 6pm.

Richard III's Book of Hours

A Book of Hours accompanied Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth and contained the following prayer:

"Lord Jesus Christ, deign to free my, your servant King Richard, from every tribulation, sorrow and trouble in which I am placed…hear me, in the name of all your goodness, for which I give thanks, and for all the gifts granted to me, because you made me from nothing and redeemed me out of your bounteous love and pity from eternal damnation to promising eternal life.” 

Children would study the Christian saints' patronage, holiness and feast days and Richard III must have been fascinated with numerous saints sharing the names of his siblings. His brothers Edward and Edmund were named after the saints Edward the Confessor and Edmund the Martyr who were kings of England and East Anglia respectfully whilst George was named after the patron saint of England. Richard III's sister Margaret was named after the Wessex princess who married into the Scottish royal family and eldest sister Anne was named after the mother of the Virgin Mary. Anne's lineage would provide crucial in profiling Richard III's DNA after the king's skeleton was unearthed in 2012.

Religious devotion was shown in abstaining from certain foods during the seasons of Lent and Advent in accordance with the sacrifices of Jesus Christ. Meat was also banned during certain observances on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year. 

FOOD & DRINK

Medieval diets, like the fashions of the day, were dependent on social class. Nobles and lords enjoyed a wide range of meats including fowl, lamb, beef, bacon and fresh water fish for those living close by. Milled flour, cheese and butter could also be found on a noble's dining table. 

Richard III's ascent to the throne was also shown in his diet with bone chemistry analysis conducted by the British Geological Survey showing that the king ate more regal birds such as swans and herons and drank more wine in his brief two year reign. 

Commoners had a much simpler diet of root vegetables, rye bread, lentils, beef, pork, milk and cheese. Bread was baked in village communal ovens and biscuits were conveniently eaten by common workers. Only lords and nobles were allowed to hunt for deer, boar, hares or rabbits and commoners ran the risk of having a hand chopped off if they were caught poaching. 

The high fibre, low fat and calorie diet lacked vitamins A, C and D and this would lead to bad teeth, skin diseases, scurvy and rickets. Raw vegetables and fresh fruit were viewed with suspicion as vegetables were cooked in soups and common stews whereas nobles enjoyed fruit pies made from apples, cherries and raspberries. Nobles could also afford sugar and Asian spices and their cooks were able to concoct exotic recipes. 

A castle kitchen hard at work

To avoid the food from spoiling, cooks would preserve food in the summer to be eaten in the colder winter months and items which couldn't be preserved were only eaten in season. The cost of maintaining animals during the winter caused them to be slaughtered in the autumn and this meat would be preserved using salt. The meat would either be buried in dry salt or soaked in salty brine water and the overwhelming salty taste would be combated with Asian spices like pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg and ginger. Food would also be preserved in pickled vinegar, solidified jelly or would be wood smoked, dried, candied or honeyed.  

Castle kitchens were located on the ground floor and would contain a great hearth where meats of beef, pork and poultry would be spit-roasted or smoked whilst boiling pots hanged above the fireplace. Pies and wheat-floured manchet bread were baked in the cooking ovens. The kitchens were built against the castle's curtain wall and were supplied with water in a sink and drain. Surrounding the kitchens were various store rooms with the pantry containing perishable foods, wine was stored and dispensed in the bottlery and a butler presided over ales in the buttery.

Alcohol was the medieval beverage of choice as untreated water had a foul taste and was full of disease. Beer had been brewed in England since the Roman times and a growing number of fermented grains had led to the introduction of stronger ales. Different spices and fruits added flavour and led to other drinks with honey used in mead, apples used in cider and grapes, pomegranates and raspberries used in different wines.

English grapes would often turn sour as the climate prevented ripening so most wines were imported from France and the Mediterranean which provided too expensive for commoners. The sweet Malmsey wine from the Portuguese island of Maderia was said to be used for darker means as it was rumoured that Richard III's brother, George, Duke of Clarence, was punished for treason by being drowned in a butt of malmsey. 

Malmsey was said to be used for more darker methods

The prepared meals would be served to guests in the Great Hall and would be eaten off gold or silver plates with silverware containing knives and forks. Commoners would use wooden dishes and would sup their soup bowls without spoons. Food was often served cold due to the distance between the kitchen and the Great Hall.

Servants provide food platters in between banquet courses

Supper was the main meal of the day and was served between 6pm-7pm. Dishes were placed on a Great Table set upon a dais and covered in cloth. Guests washed their hands at the entrance of the Great Hall before taking their seats. The meal would vary between three and six courses which were accompanied with various forms of entertainment. 

ENTERTAINMENT

The Great Hall would be filled with entertainers who would serenade the guests as it was believed music would aid digestion. Troubadours would perform romantic ballads of chivalry and courtly love on lutes, flutes, horns, trumpets and drums. Minstrels would provide music from above the Great Hall floor in the Minstrels Gallery where harps would accompany ballads and recitals of mythical poetry.

Troubadours entertained nobles during meals

After-meal entertainment was provided with court dances such as the volta and jongleurs would juggle, conjure and tumble but the itinerant entertainers were deemed vagabonds and untrustworthy. Entertainment wasn't just confined to court as commoners also enjoyed partying. Towns would employ musicians called Waits who composed and played music for important occasions and ceremonies.

A dance would often follow noble banquets

Uplifting and romantic chivaree music was played at weddings and on St. Valentine's Day whilst buoyant and cheery music of horns, trumpets, whistles and bells built to a crescendo. Mayday celebrations included dancing around a maypole to high-pitched music that was believed to reawaken the hibernating spirits for the onset of spring.

Feast days of pagan origins were celebrated often with the grandest feast taking place at the dreariest time of year. The 12 days from Christmas Eve to Twelfth Night on 5 January was a time of rest for servants who were gifted with food, clothing, drink and firewood. Houses were decked with holly and ivy whilst giant Yule logs were brought in and burned throughout the 12-day Christmastide celebrations. 

A Christmastide procession was part of the festivities

Christmastide 1460 was an agreed upon period of truce between the Duke of York and Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset and this truce came to a brutal end on 30 December 1460 at the Battle of Wakefield.  

Wars of the Roses Weaponary and Tactics

The wars raged across 15th Century England made it essential for forces to be properly armed and protected.

ARMOUR

Men-at-arms in the thick of the action were fitted with heavy armour with a breast-plate underneath a leather brigandine or chain-mail hauberk. Attached to the breastplate were the plate armoured gorget around the neck, pauldron over the shoulders, couter over the elbows, vambraces over the forearms, tassets over the thighs and culet over the lower back. Added protection was found with plate-armoured gauntlet gloves and knights wore lance rests attached to the breast plate to steady their lances for a firmer blow.

Horses were also glad in plate armour

The main disadvantage of heavy armour was the lack of mobility and the quick-moving infantry wore a mail shirt over a padded aketonmail, with added munitions plate covering the most important body parts.  Light armour mostly consisted of padded cloth and leather with the archer's bracer providing a leather armguard to protect the fletching of an arrow. 

A Richard III re-enactor wears a crowed sallet helmet

Helmets also varied in design depending on how much protection was needed. Heavy helmets were made from steel plate, covered the head with visors on bascinets, armets, sallets and close helmets. Richard III was likely wearing a crowned sallet when he charged Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth.

Medium helmets were made of steel, but didn't protect the entire head like the visor-less barbute helmet. Light helmets were usually caps made of cloth and leather but archers preferred the wide-brimmed steel kettle hats for greater field of vision and to shield their eyes from the sun. Helmets were often customised with different colours, plumes, coifs and bevors. 

Archers wore kettle helmets to shield their eyes from the sun

COMBAT WEAPONS

The advancements in protective armour led to the development of the longsword which allowed a double-handed grip with the sword's longer hilt. The finest swords of the era were stamped with a German Passau wolf and the unusually hard Toledo steel forged in Spain. Daggers were often used as a side-arm and the small, sharp bladed wound on top of Richard III's skull showed that they were used as execution weapons, with two hands likely used to push the pommel into Richard III's skull.

Other weapons used by men-at-arms included hammers, maces, axes, spears and pole arms like the halberd. The halberd was inexpensive to produce and very versatile in battle as the hook and axe head were able to pull horsemen to the ground. The large hole at the base of Richard III's skull shows that a halberd likely sliced the back of the king's head and struck the fatal blow. The bill hook was also effective at bringing down a horseman with the pronounced hook able to find a chink in the knight's armour. 

A halberd likely struck the fatal blow to Richard III

Men on horseback attacked in triangular formations, with the most heavily armored knights at the front. They defended themselves with shields and attacked with a wooden lance that would shatter upon impact. Richard III was the head of a triangular formation charging towards Henry Tudor and his lance shattered into the helmet of Tudor's standard bearer, Sir William Brandon.

RANGED WEAPONS

The longbow gained it's notoriety at the Battle of Agincourt with a fast reload, accurate archers, armour-piercing bodkin heads and light-weight bowstaves. Compulsory longbow training was enforced in 1470 and many of the fragile yew bowstaves would often break and needed replacing. This led to a shortage in yew and this was overcome by Richard III increasing the tax on ships arriving in English ports to 10 bowstaves per tun in cargo, up from 4 bowstaves decreed in the Statue of Westminster 1472.

Longbowmen in action at the Battle of Towton (Graham Turner)

An effective longbowman took years of strength and skill training whilst a crossbow could be used effectively after a week's training. The crossbow was more powerful than a longbow thanks to a greater release of kinetic energy but it was more inaccurate and had a slower shooting rate than an average longbow. The archers took central position in battle formations and usually engaged the enemy before a main assault of mounted knights. Crossbowmen were also utilised in counterattacks to protect their infantry.

Cannon fires at a Battle of Tewkesbury festival

Arrows would eventually be replaced by gunpowder and shot in the coming centuries. The Wars of the Roses saw artillery like culverins used to supplement infantry attacks and bombards brought siege to Bamburgh Castle in 1464. Transporting artillery from camp-to-camp provided to be cumbersome and firearms, such as hand culverins, hand bombards and hand cannons developed.

TACTICS

In the early 1450s the act of gathering troops and marching to battle didn't usually result in combat as Duke of York's standoff at Dartford showed. Henry VI may have been expecting the same when he garrisoned the wall-less town of St. Albans in 1455 but York decided to end hours of stalemate by launching the First Battle of St. Albans.

A commander would line his troops into three 'battles' - the vanguard leading the attack, the main in the middle, and the rearguard often holding back reserves. Archers had previously launched the opening salvo into opposing infantry but by the mid-1400s this had developed into a stalemate of opposing bowmen fighting each other. Men-at-arms would either lead the vanguard on foot (Battle of Northampton) or on horseback (Battle of Blore Heath). 

Lord Audley leads a cavalry charge at Blore Heath

Armies made best use of their terrain and would fortify their positions by using bodies of water and marshland, digging trenches and setting up wooden spikes to deter on-coming cavalry. Deception was used effectively by Earl of Salisbury at Blore Heath by removing his soldiers from the front line to give the impression of retreat to Lord Audley. Audley was lured into taking his cavalry over a stream and was unable to avoid Salisbury's returning men.

The rank-and-file troops were gathered by their lords or knights and served in all of their disputes wearing the lord's ‘livery’ and fought under their banner. In return, the lord ‘maintained’ their tenants' rights and claims. This ‘livery and maintenance’ soon developed into ‘bastard feudalism’ as cash rewards replaced traditional land gains. 

The level of professionalism varied amongst the troops who would often flee the battlefield or surrender unarmed when the fight was lost. The Wars of the Roses was mainly a dispute between noble families and the rank-and-file were spared the bloodshed of their noble commanders whose heavy armour would hinder them escaping a melee.  

Battle of Wakefield saw the end of chivalric ransoms

The Battle of Wakefield saw the conflict take a grisly turn when captured nobles were executed instead of being customarily ransomed and these deaths made the battles extremely personal. The Battle of Ludford Bridge was a rare occasion in the Wars of the Roses where battle commanders, facing defeat, fled the battlefield to fight another day. The move by York to withdraw should be seen as calculated as he was hugely outnumbered following a large defection. Cowardice at Ludford should be viewed with caution as most of those who fled the battlefield - York, his son, the Earl of Rutland, Rutland's uncle, Salisbury and Salisbury's son, the Earl of Warwick, would later die in, or shortly after, battle.

The other escapee of Ludford was York's eldest son, Edward, who would claim the throne in 1461 after fighting amongst 50,000 men at the Battle of Towton that left 26,000 dead. Richard III would also charge into battle and refused to withdraw from the Battle of Bosworth after he was dismounted. Bosworth would ultimately be decided by those fighting under livery and maintenance as Sir William Stanley led his men at the crucial moment to attack the king.

The 30 years between the First Battle of St. Albans and Bosworth had periods of uneasy rest but the brutal battles and the twisted machinations would ensure that blood would soon be spilt and the long vaunted days of chivalry were over

Profile - Edmund Plantagenet, Earl of Rutland 1443-1460

Edmund Plantagenent, Earl of Rutland, was second son to Richard, Duke of York, who fought alongside his father at the Battle of Wakefield.

BOY CHANCELLOR

Rutland was born in Rouen, France, in 17 May 1443 as the fifth child and second surviving son of the Duke of York and Cecily Neville. Edmund was granted the Earldom in 1446 and was tutored by Richard Croft at Ludlow Castle, his father's Shropshire estate. York showed his love to his eldest sons, Edward, Earl of March, and Rutland, by giving them green gowns as Easter gifts in 1454 despite York being busy at court becoming Protector of the Realm that spring.

York held the title Lieutenant of Ireland and appointed Rutland as Lord Chancellor of Ireland when his son was just eight-year-old. With Rutland underage, governing Ireland's coffers was tasked to Deputy Chancellors Edmund Oldhall, brother to York's Chamberlain, and then John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. 

Following defeat at the Battle of Ludford Bridge on 12 October 1459, York took Rutland to Ireland via Devon and Wales, whilst leaving his wife and young children, Margaret, George and Richard, to the might of the royal army. The 16-year-old Rutland was able to study his father command order and respect in Ireland but soon discovered their stay in exile wouldn't last long after York discussed return plans with his nephew, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, at Waterford in spring 1460.

York and Rutland returned from Ireland on 8 September 1460, landing in north Wales, and traveled to Ludlow and Hereford. It was at Hereford where Rutland met up with his mother and younger siblings but he followed his father's march south to London. York's march was signaled with the flying of the royal standard as if it was his own and York proclaimed his right to the throne by placing a hand upon it on 10 October 1460.

York's actions were derisive and alienated his supporters including Warwick and his father, Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury. An incensed Warwick challenged York in the pretender's Westminster apartments but a brave and loyal Rutland came to his father's defence by saying to Warwick, "Fair Sir, be not angry, for you know that we have the true right to the crown, and that my lord and father must have it."   

Rutland clashed with the Earl of Warwick following York's public claim to the throne

Rutland's older brother Edward, who had escaped Ludford Bridge to Calais with Warwick, looked to calm the atmosphere by saying to Rutland, "Brother, vex no man, for all shall be well." Edward left the apartments with Warwick and Rutland stayed by his father's side. Later that month, Parliament passed an Act of Accord that decreed York and his heirs would inherit the throne after Henry VI, despite the fact that the king had a son, Prince Edward of Westminster.

Rutland accompanied his father's march north from London on 9 December 1460 after York and Salisbury's northern estates had been looted by Lancastrian forces. After a skirmish with the troops of Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, at Worksop, Nottinghamshire, York's army reached Sandal Castle near Wakefield on 21 December 1460.

BATTLE

The Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460 saw York lead his men out of Sandal Castle in search for a foraging party who had earlier left under the  apparent safety of a Christmas truce. The Lancastrian forces were led by Somerset, Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and Lord John Clifford, whose fathers had all died at First Battle of St. Albans five years previously.

York was ambushed on Wakefield Green and commanded his son to flee the battle to meet up with his brother, Edward, who was building up reinforcements in the Welsh marches. Under protest, Rutland left the battlefield and made it as far as Wakefield Bridge before he was captured. Clifford met his captive on the bridge and was urged by Rutland's tutor, priest Robert Aspell to ransom Rutland, "for he is the Prince's son, and peradventure may do you good hereafter." Clifford replied in anger, "By God’s blood, thy father slew mine and so will I do thee and thy kin,” before stabbing Rutland to death.

Rutland begs Sir John Clifford for mercy

The decapitated head of Rutland would soon join the heads of his father and uncle on spikes atop of Micklegate Bar in York. The bodies of Rutland and York were hastily buried in Pontefract Priory until Edward, now King Edward IV, reinterred them in the family vault at Fotheringhay Castle on 30 January 1466.

Profile - Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury 1400-1460

Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, was a key Yorkist supporter in the beginning of the Wars of the Roses, and was also brother-in-law to Richard, Duke of York.

WARDEN OF THE NORTH

The Earl of Salisbury was born in 1400 at Raby Castle in County Durham and was the eldest son of Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, and Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford. Salisbury's father was responsible for the wardship of the orphaned Duke of York, and Ralph Neville betrothed the wealthy duke to his youngest daughter, Cecily.

Richard Neville was married to Alice Montacute, daughter and heiress of Thomas Montacute, the Earl of Salisbury, sometime before February 1421 when they attended the coronation of Queen Catherine of Valois as a married couple. Ralph Neville died in 1425 and Richard inherited the family residence of Middleham Castle with the Earldom of Salisbury coming three years later when Alice's father died.

Middleham Castle - Seat of Neville Power

Salisbury became a commander at the age of 20 when appointed Warden of the West March on the Scottish border and was rewarded by Henry V in his appointment of Justice of the Peace in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham. Salisbury began to frequent the royal court and accompanied the young King Henry VI to France for his coronation in 1431 and his fealty was rewarded by becoming Warden of the East March on the Welsh border.

In 1436, Salisbury resigned from both posts and accompanied York, the newly appointed Lieutenant of France, with 1,300 men-at-arms and archers to protect English lands on the French domain. Salisbury returned the following year and was repaid with a seat on the King's Council whilst also resuming the Wardenship of the West March. The wardenship caused resentment with the Percy family, who had lands just south of the Scottish border in Northumberland.

The Percys were aggrieved when Salisbury recruited men in their Cumberland and Westmorland estates and the Percys flouted Salisbury's rule during the Battle of Sark against the Scots in 1448. Salisbury was to feel the wrath of the Percys up close on 24 August 1453 when Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, attacked Salisbury at Heworth Moor, outside York, on the journey home to Sheriff Hutton. Salisbury was returning from the wedding of his son Thomas and he fought off Egremont's men unscathed.

YORKIST

Salisbury's eldest son became Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick when he married the Warwick heiress Anne Beauchamp in 1449. Warwick was to exceed his father in lands, wealth and titles but remained loyal and Salisbury would take a high place in the Privy Council after Henry VI's mental breakdown. 

During the king's illness, York was elected Protector of the Realm on 27 March 1454 and assigned his brother-in-law as Chancellor. Salisbury wasn't able to tackle government overspending for long as York's influence diminished when Henry VI regained his sense on Christmas Day 1454. York and Warwick's enemy, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, was released from the Tower of London and Salisbury resigned as Chancellor in 1455.

Henry VI's return to health saw Salisbury resign as Chancellor

English queen, Margaret of Anjou, focused her resentment on the Yorkists and requested the nobles to attend a Great Council meeting in Leicester on 21 May 1455. York, along with Salisbury and Warwick, saw the invitation as a ruse and took up arms to intercept the royal party before they reached Leicester.

Yorkist and royal forces clashed at the First Battle of St. Albans where Salisbury's and York's attempts to break the Lancastrian front line was assisted by Warwick's surprise attack from Lord Thomas Clifford's rear. The Lancastrian army was defeated and the king's lieutenants, including Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland, were killed. Henry VI was discovered in a tanner's house and Salisbury bent the knee with York and Warwick to show their allegiance to the king. 

Salisbury rode alongside the king as he was escorted back to London and his son was appointed Captain of Calais after York was proclaimed Constable of England that was later relinquished when Henry VI returned to good health. Warwick kept his captaincy of Calais and Margaret convinced the king to move the royal court to Coventry in Lancastrian heartland. York and Salisbury retired to their estates of Ludlow and Middleham but Salisbury was soon aggravated by the Percys.

Henry VI looked for peace throughout the nobility and called for talks in early 1458. The talks were disrupted by Sir John Clifford, Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland and Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, whose fathers died at St. Albans. Henry VI conceded and allowed them to be compensated by York, Salisbury and Warwick. The peace talks culminated at Loveday 24 March 1458 but the public display of peace didn't continue as Margaret of Anjou and Warwick sparred with each other either side of the English Channel with Warwick lucky to escape London with his life.

MASTER OF DECEPTION

York and Salisbury gathered troops in anticipation and word was sent to Warwick to do the same. Salisbury left Middleham and marched south-west to meet York but was intercepted by royal forces at the Battle of Blore Heath on 23 September 1459. 

Lord Audley leads the attack on Salisbury

Margaret of Anjou had heard of Salisbury's movements and sent James Tuchet, Lord Audley, to intercept him. Audley chose the open field of Blore Heath in Staffordshire to attack Salisbury with his 10,000 men and took position behind a stream out Salisbury's archers range. Salisbury showed his experience by enticing Audley to cavalry charge when he feinted a retreat and two subsequent charges from the Lancastrians couldn't break Salisbury's lines. The fighting left 2,000 Lancastrians, including Audley, dead.

Salisbury was aware that the main Lancastrian army was nearby and tasked a friar to fire cannons left on the battlefield to mask his retreat. This ingenuity resulted in Salisbury linking up with York and Warwick by Ludlow. The royal army forced York to encamp south of Ludlow at the Battle of Ludford Bridge. The king's presence led to the defection of Warwick's forces and the three Yorkist commanders fled the battlefield with Salisbury, Warwick and York's son, Edward, Earl of March, headed south to Calais.

Exile in Calais lasted eight months with Warwick meeting with York in Ireland in March 1460 to plan their return two months later. Salisbury stayed in London to hold the city as Warwick and March successfully fought the royal forces at Battle of Northampton. Warwick returned to London with the king and York came to the city on 10 October 1460 to claim the throne for himself. York's unsuccessful public display to take the throne for himself alienated Salisbury and Warwick who were hesitant in deposing the king.

An Act of Accord on 24 October 1460 decreed that York and his subsequent heirs would inherit the throne after Henry VI but Margaret of Anjou was courting Scottish support with James III. 

News of Northumberland mobilising forces and raiding Salisbury and York estates led the two nobles, along with York's second eldest son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland, to leave London and march north. The Yorkist army clashed with Edmund Beaufort's army at Worksop, Nottinghamshire, and reached Sandal Castle near Wakefield on 21 December 1460. York was drawn out onto Wakefield Green and ambushed at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460. 

A crushing Yorkist defeat saw York die on the battlefield and Rutland was caught fleeing the battle and executed. Salisbury's attempt to flee the lost battle lasted a few more hours than Rutland's and he was caught and held at Pontefract Castle. Salisbury's captors were contemplating a ransom when the earl bribed a jailor to apparent safety but commoners saw Salisbury leaving, sprung an attack and executed him.

Salisbury's head would be spiked alongside those of York and Rutland on Mickelgate Bar in York but the Neville dynasty didn't end there. Warwick would later be the "Kingmaker" and Salisbury's grand-daughter, Anne Neville, became Queen Consort when Richard III came to the throne 23 years after the rout at Wakefield.