A Rosy and Thorny Game of Thrones - Part 2

Sunday sees the return of the HBO TV series Game of Thrones, the medieval fantasy based on A Song of Ice and Fire novels by George R. R. Martin, which was influenced by the Wars of the Roses. The Daily Mail and History Behind Game of Thrones compare the Cousin's War in 15th Century England and the War of the Five Kings that ravaged across Westeros in Game of Thrones.

The conflicted characters of Game of Thrones share many characteristics with the real-life players of the Wars of the Roses as rival families fought for the throne and once again there are spoilers below for those who aren't up-to-date with Game of Thrones. 

HOUSE STARK/YORK

The first family introduced in the Game of Thrones TV Series was the House of Stark led by patriarch Lord Eddard 'Ned' Stark. Ned, played by Sean Bean, was the Warden of the North who served his friend, Robert Baratheon, during the King's successful rebellion and he begrudgingly left his northern stronghold of Winterfell after being awarded the title Hand of the King in the first episode.

Ned Stark with his sword Ice

Despite the title's suggestion, Richard, Duke of York didn't command the north of England as strongly as Ned Stark. Land titles were often inherited and York's northern territories were limited to Sandal Castle in Wakefield whilst the north was mainly owned by the Neville and Percy families.

York served as Lieutenant of both France and Ireland but would soon be passed over for the favourites of England's king and queen. York's loyalty to the crown was tested by the queen, Margaret of Anjou, who would exchange scathing arguments similar to those had by Ned and Queen Cersei.

The turning point in Series One of Game of Thrones is when King Robert dies and Ned becomes Protector of the Realm to rule until King Joffrey comes of age. York was also named Lord Protector in 1453 when an incapacitated Henry VI was unable to rule. Ned soon discovers that King Joffrey and his siblings are bastards born from incest and publicly declares Joffrey illegitimate in the Throne Room.

Richard, Duke of York, claimant to the throne

York had arguably a better claim to the throne than Henry VI and would publicly declare this by placing his hand on the empty throne in October 1460. York wasn't betrayed as severely as Ned in the Throne Room but courtiers didn't support York as much as he would have liked and would spend weeks negotiating that resulted in decreeing York would inherit the throne after Henry VI.

Ned, however, was imprisoned for treason and his confession in the Sept of Baelor didn't dissuade Joffrey from having Ned beheaded and put on the battlements of the Red Keep. York would never get the chance to inherit the throne after dying in battle during December 1460 and he too would have his decapitated head spiked and put on display.

The wives of Lord Stark and York would also share similarities. Lady Catelyn Stark, played by Michelle Fairley, was part of the Riverlands' House Tully whilst Duchess of York, Cecily Neville, was of the northern Neville family.

Catelyn Stark would negotiate terms for her son's rebellion

York's wife was known as 'Proud Cis' and Catelyn would also share this trait as she hated to be reminded of Ned's infidelity and acted coldly around Ned's bastard son, Jon Snow.

Catelyn was actively involved in negotiating alliances with Lord Walder Frey and Renly Baratheon. Cecily would also negotiate for peace with Margaret of Anjou and the Council following her husband's several challenges to royal authority. Lady Stark's sister, Lysa, had married Lord John Arryn who would die as Hand of the King and caused Lysa to remove herself to the Vale of Arryn. The Stark sisters reunion at the Eyrie didn't go as Catelyn would have liked as Tyrion Lannister escaped execution and Lysa refused to commit troops to the Stark cause.

Cecily Neville would outlive her husband and 13 children

Cecily would also be reunited with her sister, Anne, in harsh circumstances after York had fled the battlefield and left his Duchess to the mercy of the Lancastrian forces. Cecily and her three youngest children were placed under the care of Anne Neville, Duchess of Buckingham, who was married to the Lancastrian commander, Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham. 

The fates of Lady Stark and the Duchess of York would however differ. Cecily would live to the age of 80, outliving all of her 13 children, two of which became kings, and saw her grand-daughter become queen. Catelyn would live a much shorter live after falling victim to Walder Frey's betrayal and was killed alongside her eldest son, Robb at the Red Wedding.

Robb Stark, played by Richard Madden, had taken up arms in his father's defence and was named King of the North by his men. The eldest son of York, Edward IV would also take up arms following his father's death and would be proclaimed King of England in March 1461. Edward IV's victory at Towton confirmed his rule and was similar to Robb's victory at the Whispering Wood.

Robb Stark's marriage was similar to Edward IV's

Robb marched south from the Twins after negotiating a crossing with Walder Frey that involved Robb's betrothal to one of Frey's daughters. The betrothal was soon abandoned by Robb when he married Talisa Maegyr (played by Oona Chaplin)and this unwanted marriage was similar to Edward IV's union with Elizabeth Woodville. 

Edward IV was a valiant young King

The Earl of Warwick was negotiating a marriage between Edward IV and a European princess when the king married the daughter of a former squire and this alienated Warwick. Edward IV's uncle would unsuccessfully rebel against the king and was killed at the Battle of Barnet whilst Walder Frey was more successful by betraying Robb, his mother, his wife and unborn child who were killed at the Red Wedding.

Robb was himself betrayed by the Stark ward, Theon Greyjoy (played by Alfie Allen), and was reminiscent of George, Duke of Clarence's betraying his brother, Edward IV. Theon suggested a Stark/Greyjoy alliance to his surrogate brother and Robb allowed him to propose this alliance in person to Theon's father, Balon Greyjoy. This reunion would see Theon looking to prove himself to his father by betraying Robb and attacking Stark's home of Winterfell.

Theon Greyjoy couldn't resist his Iron Island roots

Clarence had aligned himself with Warwick following his brother's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and this was affirmed with Clarence marrying Warwick's eldest daughter, Isabel Neville. Warwick's plan to overthrow the king and crown Clarence with his grandson as heir was soon thwarted and Warwick looked instead to an alliance with the exiled Margaret of Anjou. Clarence felt betrayed by Warwick and joined his brother's side at the Battle of Barnet in 1471 where they defeated Warwick.

George, Duke of Clarence, betrayed his brother

Clarence would soon rebel against Edward IV after his wife had died and would be executed for treason in 1478 by being drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. Theon's confident and brash persona would die when he was captured and tortured by Ramsey Snow but it remains to be seen whether Theon can return to glory.

The Stark family is now led by the eldest daughter, Sansa Stark, played by Sophie Turner, who has transformed throughout the TV series. The naive 'little dove' had seen her Prince Joffrey take the head of her father and sadistically ridicule her. The Lady of Winterfell was married to Tyrion Lannister as a strategic match which Littlefinger wanted and engineered to possess the heiress of the North.

Sansa Stark, Lady of Winterfell, is highly sought after

Elizabeth of York was Edward IV's eldest daughter and was seen as a strategic match to end the Wars of the Roses. In December 1483, Elizabeth Woodville and Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry Tudor, agreed to the marriage of Elizabeth of York and Henry Tudor that was realised in January 1486. This marriage would unite the warring York and Lannister families and was symbolised by the Tudor Rose.

Elizabeth of York became Queen

Elizabeth of York's brothers, King Edward V and Prince Richard, were last seen housed in the Tower of London in late 1483 and were presumed dead, just as the youngest Stark boys, Bran and Rickon were when Theon Greyjoy falsely displayed two charred farm boys as the Starks.

Jon Snow, like Richard, Duke of Gloucester, fought in the North

Ned Stark's bastard son, Jon Snow, played by Kit Harrington became a Man of the Night's Watch and defended The Wall against the Wildlings. Richard, Duke of Gloucester was named Lieutenant-General of the North in 1480 by his brother, Edward IV. Richard raged war against the Scots and recaptured Berwick-upon-Tweed in 1482.

HOUSE LANNISTER/LANCASTER

House of Lancaster originated from the descendants of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and ruled England for over 60 years. 

Henry V was the most famous Lancastrian king, showing warrior-like qualities in defeating the French at Agincourt and Jaime Lannister, played by Nikolaj Coster-Waldau, was known as the greatest swordsman in Westeros. Jaime's illegitmate son, Joffrey, would take the throne under the guise of King Robert's son and would show signs of madness as did Henry VI. 

Jaime Lannister and Henry V showed their prowess with a sword

Henry VI's first mental breakdown coincided with the birth of his only son, Edward of Westminster, who shares similarities with King Joffrey (played by Jack Gleeson) who took pleasure in meeting out justice to his captors. 

The sadistic King Joffrey 

Prince Edward was exposed to cruelty from an early age when the five-year-old boy witnessed the Lancastrian victory at the Second Battle of St. Albans. Margaret of Anjou asked her young son how the two York knights held captive should be killed and the prince requested death by decapitation, an order repeated by King Joffrey for Ned Stark.

Prince Edward was aged five when he passed judgement of execution

Margaret of Anjou looked to reaffirm her son's birthright by aligning with the Earl of Warwick who betrothed his daughter, Anne Neville, to Prince Edward. 

The "Kingmaker" Earl of Warwick

The Earl of Warwick was known as the Kingmaker for his decisive military and political actions whose lands and titles gave him vast wealth and served as inspiration for the Lannister patriach, Tywin Lannister, played by Charles Dance. 

Tywin Lannister

Tywin was also the richest man in the land and served twice as Hand of the King, betrothed his daughter to King Robert and saw his two grandsons sit on the Iron Throne. Tywin, like Warwick, looked to affirm his power by negotiating favourable marriages and he betrothed Cersei once again and his two grandsons to the powerful Tyrells. Joffrey's marriage to Margaery Tyrell didn't last a day after he was poisoned at the wedding feast and Prince Edward would also die young at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471.

Joffrey's mother, Cersei Lannister, played by Lena Headey, draws inspiration from Margaret of Anjou and Elizabeth Woodville. Cersei would act as Queen Regent during Joffrey's minority and looked to wield power but was unable to control her son.

Queen Cersei divided many in King's Landing

Margaret of Anjou had several admirers at court, the biggest being the 2nd Duke of Somerset. Somerset had negotiated the royal marriage and carried the young queen-to-be ashore when she arrived in England. Queen Margaret returned this by awarding Somerset several titles and intervened numerous times when others called for Somerset's arrest. Many wondered whether Prince Edward was a result of an adulterous liaison between the queen and Somerset, a relationship that somewhat resembles the Lannister twins of Cersei and Jaime.

Margaret of Anjou's favourtism resembled Cersei's

This incestuous relationship bore illegitimate children which were revealed as such by Ned Stark and, more publicly, by Stannis Baratheon. Elizabeth Woodville would also see her children declared bastards after an Act of Accord in 1483 ruled that Edward IV was betrothed to another when Woodville married the king.

HOUSE BARATHEON/LATER YORK

King Robert Baratheon, like Edward IV, had won a valiant war to claim the throne but times of peace allowed both kings to revel in royal luxuries. King Robert, played by Mark Addy, was over-bloated after years of excess food and drink and would die on an alcohol-fuelled hunting trip. Edward IV also led an unhealthy lifestyle towards the end of his reign and would fall fatally ill, possibly from pneumonia, in Spring of 1483.

Robert Baratheon resembled an older Edward IV

Robert's two younger brothers would each look to replace him but Renly Baratheon (played by Gethin Anthony) was killed by his brother Stannis whilst George, Duke of Clarence, was executed for treason before Edward IV died.

Renly Baratheon wanted the throne as did George, Duke of Clarence

Ned Stark had informed Stannis Baratheon (played by Stephen Dillane) of the true identity of Cersei's children and Stannis publicly declared them bastards following Ned Stark's execution. 

Stannis Baratheon publicly declared his nephews & niece as bastards

Richard, Duke of Gloucester, did the same when he discovered the illegitimacy of Edward IV's sons and would become King Richard III. Both Stannis and Richard III were known for their duty and believed in just law, they would also share a sickly child with Richard's son Prince Edward dying aged 10.

Richard III took the throne after declaring his nephew a bastard

Stannis looked to support the Men of the Night's Watch cause but arrived a day afterward the Battle of the Castle Black. He continues to pursue the Iron Throne but it remains to be seen whether he'll be successful.

HOUSE TARGARYEN/LANCASTER & TUDOR

The final Targaryen king was Aerys II, known as the Mad King, and the final Lancastrian king Henry VI would also show mental frailties. Aegon II was promoted to the Iron Throne by his mother Queen Alicent Hightower much like how Margaret Beaufort encouraged her son, Henry Tudor, to the English throne, to become Henry VII.

Henry VII provided inspiration for at least two Targaryens

Henry VII had been sent into exile during Edward IV's reign - as had Daenerys Targaryen (played by Emilia Clarke). Daenerys was the daughter of Aerys II and fled to Essos with her brother Viserys and the Mother of Dragons is currently planning a return to Westeros with her dragons to claim the Iron Throne.

The exiled 'Mother of Dragons' Daenerys Targaryen

Henry Tudor was descended from the Welsh Tudor family and he flew the Welsh Dragon on his banners when he successfully won the crown by defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. This would then usher in the Tudor dynasty that ruled England for over 100 years.

HOUSES TULLY & TYRELL/NEVILLE

In order to successfully claim the throne you need support from lesser families. The Neville family descended from the Beauforts of John of Gaunt were originally sympathetic to the Lancastrian cause. Ralph Neville betrothed his nine-year-old daughter, Cecily Neviile to the Duke of York, similar to Catelyn Tully's betrothal to Ned Stark. 

Cecily's brother, Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, would later fight alongside York and his valour was similar to that shown by Catelyn's uncle Bryden Tully (played by Clive Russell).

Bryden 'Blackfish' Tully resembled the Earl of Salisbury

Salisbury's son, the Earl of Warwick, would also look to betroth his children in order to affirm his power. His eldest daughter, Isabel, was married to George, Duke of Clarence, as part of Warwick's original plan to overthrow Edward IV but this provided to be futile. Warwick would then use his other daughter, Anne, in a marriage with Lancastrian Prince Edward, in a second attempt to overthrow Edward IV.

Anne Neville would go from a Lancastrian Princess to a Yorkist Queen when Anne later married Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and became Queen Consort when Richard became king in 1483.

Anne Neville would be Princess and later Queen

Margaery Tyrell (played by Natalie Dormer) would also rise to power and told Littlefinger that she wants to be "THE queen" and not just a queen after the death of her betrothed Renly. 

Margaery Tyrell has aligned herself with two kings and one pretender

The Tyrells soon joined Tywin Lannister in fighting back Stannis' attack on King's Landing at the Battle of Backwater Bay and were rewarded by having Margaery betrothed to King Joffrey. Not to be deterred by Joffrey's death (engineered by Margaery's grandmother) Margaery would set her sights on the next king, Tommen Baratheon.

SIGILS & MOTTOS

Heraldry rose in prominence during the Middle Ages where soldiers could identify friend or foe on the battlefield. This soon developed into coats of arms where family lineage and personal emblems were displayed. Unlike the family sigils of Westeros, medieval banners would contain different emblems amongst family members. 

Whilst the Starks fought below Direwolf banners, the Yorkists flew under the Falcon and Fetterlock of the Duke of York, the Sunne in Splendour of Edward IV, the Black Bull of Duke of Clarence and the White Boar of Richard III. The White Rose of York was used early on during the so-called Wars of the Roses whilst the Red Rose of Lancaster was only used towards the end of the conflict with the banner of the  Welsh Red Dragon being flown by Henry Tudor's men.

The York symbols White Rose and Falcon & Fetterlock

Each family in Westeros has it's own motto such as Stark's "Winter Is Coming" or Lannister's "Hear Me Roar!" Mottos were usually reserved for English royalty and usually invoked fealty and loyalty with Edward IV's "Comfort and Joy", Richard III's "Loyalty Binds Me" and Henry VI's "God And My Right."  

Profile - Cecily Neville Part 1 1415-1460

The 80 years of Cecily Neville's life would see her family's power rise, fall and rise again as she became wife of a pretender to the English throne, mother to the two Yorkist kings, and grandmother to the first Tudor queen. Cecily, however, would tragically outlive her husband and all of their 13 children.

'ROSE OF RABY'

Cecily Neville was born on 3 May 1415 at Raby Castle in Durham as youngest daughter to parents Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, and Joan Beaufort with Cecily's good looks rewarded with the sobriquet 'Rose of Raby'. Her maternal grandparents were the English prince, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster, and Katherine Swynford. The family connections to the Beauforts would see Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry Tudor, as Cecily's second cousin.

Ralph Neville had become the royal warden of Richard, Duke of York after York's father, Richard of Conisburgh,  was condemned to death in 1415, and the young duke arrived at Raby Castle in December 1423 to live with the Nevilles. Cicely's father betrothed her to York in October 1424 at the expense of 3,000 marks to the crown to release York from his wardship. Cicely was 14 years-old and York was 18 when the couple married in October 1429 and would remain married for 31 years with Cicely bearing 13 children, seven of whom survived childhood.

Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire was a favourite family residence

York's vast estates would see Cecily live in Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire and Baynard's Castle in London. The contented marriage saw Cicely follow her husband to France and Ireland during York's time in office. Rouen in France would see the births of Cecily's eldest living sons Edward and Edmund and second living daughter, Elizabeth, between 1443 and 1444.The third living son, George, was born in 1449 in Dublin, Ireland and Cicely would bear children across 17 years and daughters Anne, Margaret and youngest son Richard were all born at Fotheringhay Castle. This would indicate that Fotheringhay Castle was the family's favourite residence.

Cicely was renowned for her piety, attending eight services a day, and this would make a mockery of later Lancastrian propaganda that slandered her as an adulteress with the rumour that Edward IV was born a bastard to Blaybourne, a French archer. The Duchess would vehemently protest against this slander and Cicely's own pride and temper would bring her the nickname 'Proud Cis'.

LADY PROTECTOR

The Duke and Duchess of York attended the wedding of King Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou in May 1445 and the queen would show court nepotism at Duke of York's expense. Cecily's first cousin, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, replaced York as Lieutenant of France but wasn't able to emulate York's time in office as France reclaimed Normandy along the English Channel coast.

Southern England was fearful of a French invasion and Jack Cade led an unsuccessful rebellion against the king and his "friends". Cade appealed to York supporters by calling himself Mortimer after York's ancestors and demanded that Henry VI removed his friends or the king would be replaced by York if this wasn't done.

York had no association with Cade but the rebellion caused many at court to ponder whether York was going to claim the throne when he travelled from Ireland to England in September 1450. York protested his allegiance to the king and demanded Somerset's arrest over France. Henry VI initially agreed but the queen intervened and duly promoted her court favourite to Captain of Calais. York was in turn given a much the lower ranked title of Justice of the Forest South of the Trent. 

Cecily's nephew, Earl of Warwick, originally supported his Beaufort relatives

A frustrated York returned to his estates. Cecily, pregnant with Richard, may have encouraged York to reassert his power and birthright which led to her husband gathering troops and marching on London but he would find the capital gates locked. York reached Dartford in Kent and faced off against the royal troops including Cecily's brother, Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury and his son, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. York looked for peace and demanded Somerset's arrest but the queen intervened once again.  

Margaret of Anjou was incensed to see Somerset being carried away in chains and a showdown in the royal tent saw Queen Margaret demand York's arrest instead. The Duke returned to London being paraded like a prisoner at the head of the royal party.

Cecily and the queen met at the shrine of Our Lady of  Walsingham

Cecily came to her husband's defence and the queen agreed to hear the Duchess' pleas for clemency at the shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham in Norfolk. The Duchess would later write to the queen and praised the meeting where Cecily surmised that her husband's "infinite sorrow and unrest of heart" caused him to be "estranged from the grace and benevolent favour" of the king. Cecily's plan worked as the queen stopped pursuing York's imprisonment but York he was publicly humiliated at St. Paul's Cathedral where he swore an oath of allegiance to the king. 

York was mindful of his own father's fate and withdrew to his estates once again to spend time with the family. York also provided much needed support to his in-laws in their land disputes with Somerset and Neville's northern rivals, the Percies. 

The royal couple welcomed their long-awaited heir in 1453 when the queen gave birth to Prince Edward. Henry VI was unable to acknowledge his son's existence after the king descended into a severe bout of mental illness following England's heavy loss at the Battle of Castillon. England needed a leader as York returning to court and was elected Lord Protector in March 1454. York brought much needed order and appointed his brother-in-law, Salisbury, as Chancellor and his nephew, Warwick, became Captain of Calais.

York's control of government didn't last long as Henry VI regained his senses during Christmas 1454 and Somerset, imprisoned in the Tower by York, was released. Parliament was to reconvene in Leicester in May 1455 and York saw this as a ruse by the queen to arrest him. Cecily's brother and nephew joined her husband and intercepted the royal army at the First Battle of St. Albans where Somerset was killed and the king captured. 

Cecily's brother successfully fought off a Lancastrian charge at Blore Heath

York would return as Lord Protector after Henry VI relapsed towards the end of 1455 and a rejuvenated king kept Warwick on as Captain of Calais after Henry VI recovered in 1456. The queen would now target Cecily's nephew with charges of piracy and a suspected murder plot against Warwick, further antagonising the Yorkist and Lancastrian divide. York and the Nevilles gathered troops and met at Ludlow in October 1459 after Salisbury had defeated a portion of the royal army at the Battle of Blore Heath en-route to Shropshire.  

DESERTED

Henry VI led his troops to just south of Ludlow and offers of royal pardons proved too tempting to York's army as Warwick's Calais troops commanded by Andrew Trollope, defected. The Battle of Ludford Bridge proved to be bloodless after York abandoned his army and fled the battlefield. York took Edmund, now Earl of Rutland, to Ireland whilst Edward, now Earl of March, joined his uncle and cousin in fleeing to Calais. 

Cecily and her children were captured in Ludlow Market Square

Cecily was left to defend Ludlow with her three youngest children and they were discovered by the Lancastrian army at Ludlow Market Cross. Cecily pleaded for clemency once again and was placed under the care of her sister Anne, Duchess of Buckingham, and her husband, the Lancastrian commander, Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham.

The Duchess of York and her youngest children stayed with the Buckinghams at Tunbridge Castle in Kent and it's close proximity to Calais would have allowed possible secret communications between Cecily and her eldest son. Cecily, like seven years before, defended her husband at court and asked for a royal pardon. She was unsuccessful in preventing her husband, brother and nephew being given an Act of Attainder which forfeited all their lands and titles. The queen, possibly remembering the time at Walsingham, may have taken pity on Cecily and the defunct-Duchess was granted £600 a year to support herself and her children.

Cecily resided in London at Banyard's Castle before York returned to England

Cecily's nephew and husband met in Ireland during the spring of 1460 to plan a return to England and Warwick, Salisbury and Edward landed in Sandwich on the Kent coast in June 1460. Salisbury held London and welcomed his sister to the capital as she took up residence in Banyard's Castle following the Yorkist victory at the Battle of Northampton. Warwick and Edward faced the royal troops in July 1460 near Northampton where treachery would allow March to take the vanguard and breach Lancastrian defences. The Lancastrian commanders were taken by surprise once the Yorkists were behind the front-lines and Buckingham would die defending the king who would once again be captured and brought back to London.

QUEEN-IN-WAITING

York returned to England on 8 September 1460 and immediately sent word to Cecily for the married couple to meet at Hereford. Cecily travelled to the west country in a charriot or litter dressed in blue velvet and carried by eight horses. York likely discussed his intentions of claiming the throne with Cicely at Hereford and, wIth Margaret of Anjou fleeing to Scotland, Cecily acted every part of a queen as she carried the royal arms during her husband's procession to London.

The Duke and Duchess of York reunited in Hereford before proceeding to London

Her husband's bold move in claiming the throne from Henry VI got little support in Parliament including Warwick and Salisbury who weren't aware of York's plan. A compromise in Parliament was struck in late October 1460 with an Act of Accord declaring York as heir-apparent and disinherited Prince Edward. York and his heirs would now take the throne once Henry VI died and Cecily became a queen-in-waiting. 

Word soon spread that Margaret of Anjou was courting Scottish support and the Percies were raiding the Yorkshire estates of York and Salisbury. York sent Edward to the Welsh Marches to rally the troops, Warwick held London and York took Edmund and Salisbury north to face the Lancastrians. Cecily gave her husband and son a fond farewell in early December 1460 and expected to welcome their return in the New Year. This never happened and Cecily was devastated when she heard of the deaths of her husband, second son and eldest brother at the Battle of Wakefield.

Life in 15th Century England - Part 2

Life in medieval England was varied but centred around commerce, crime, punishment, healthcare and living accommodations. 

HOUSING

An Englishman's home is his castle and nothing indicated social class more than medieval housing. The Norman Conquest in the 11th Century led to castles being built throughout England and the original timber motte and bailey castles were soon replaced with imposing stone fortresses. Castle architecture in the 15th Century had developed into the Perpendicular Medieval Gothic style with fan vaulted ceilings, timber-trussed hammerbeam roofs and decorative designs carved with chisels.

A castle dissected and displaying it's various rooms

The focal point inside a castle or manor house was the Great Hall where guests were wined and dined. Torches, candles and a fireplace illuminated the room with stone floors covered by carpet or mats. The walls of the Great Hall were decorated with gold paint, tapestries, shields, banners and paintings whilst wooden panelled wainscot lined the room walls. The castle air would be perfumed with sweet herbs such as lavender, camomile or rose petals to mask the pungent smells coming from the privy. 

The Great Hall was furnished with a main table positioned on a dais that was surrounded with chairs painted with the heraldic designs often in red, green, white, yellow and black colours. Other guests sat on wooden benches around trestle tables which would allow a quick removal for after-meal entertainment or sleeping area for servants.

Lords and Ladies slept upstairs in the Great Chamber or Solar that was named after the sun shining through the south faced windows. The solar was also used as a private sitting room and was furnished with beds, chairs and chests. Personal servants also slept in the solar on a portable pallet for added protection.

A bower would provide privacy for a Lady

The solar was connected to the bower room and was used by the Lady of the House and her ladies in waiting for embroidery, reading and music. The bower would be decorated with colourful tapestries, furs and pillows and the withdrawing room would later be renamed the drawing room. Clothes and jewels were kept in the wardrobe room that was connected to the solar and was an improvement from the original garderobe where clothes were kept in the latrine to deter moths.

Prayers were expected four times a day and would range between five and 30 minutes. Mass would be heard in the castle or house chapel and the small oratory room attached to the chapel would provide sanctuary for a private prayer. The oratory would be richly decorated with beautiful altar clothes and rich religious tapestries. 

Medieval oratories would have been similar to this German one

The castle was a symbol of power and had to be protected from enemies. Archers would be perched in the crenels on the battlements on top of the castle and would reload behind the stone merlons. The battlements also provided an ideal vantage point for defenders to view their oncoming enemy and the Duke of York likely weighed up his options looking down on to Wakefield Green from the battlements of Sandal Castle on the morning of 30 December 1460. York would later venture out on to the field in front of the castle and would meet his death there at the Battle of Wakefield.  

Wakefield was one of many towns throughout England with towns and villages consisting of farmers and tradesman living in houses and barns sheds clustered around the centre of the village. Commoners lived in houses of one or two rooms that were covered with thatched roofs and built together with wooden frames filled in with wattle and daub that consisted of strips of wood woven together and covered in a 'plaster' of animal hair and clay.

A medieval townhouse

More affluent towns had houses made of stone which were whitewashed or painted in bright colors with wooden shutters letting in the sunlight. An open fire was used for cooking and heating In the middle of the straw-covered earth floor and commoners sat around on benches or stools. Wooden table and chests stored clothes and other valuables while tools and utensils were kept on hooks. Rush lights dipped in animal fat illuminated the room animal fat.

Commoners were either free men or as "villeins" who bound to the land, working heavy labour for their lord and were subject to feudal dues. Village life was busy for both sexes and women would toil in the fields, wearing simple dress and living on a meager diet.

Outside influences would affect village life as trade began to spread as people began to be drawn to bigger towns and cities.

COMMERCE

The annexation of Flanders by the Burgundian empire allowed English traders to have easy access to exotic imports such as silks and spices. Merchants were soon protected by treaties and government troops whilst the workers banded together to form Guilds. A wide range of trades formed these guilds including bakers, butchers, grocers, millers, smiths, carpenters, weavers, masons and cobblers. Industry standards such as weights and measures were governed by the guilds and inspectors would visit shops to ensure compliance. The guilds would also assist members who were sick or in trouble and would often take care of families following a member's death.

A smith shows of his wares

Traders would teach their knowledge and skills to apprentices would also act as their master's domestic servant and helper. Upon completion of the apprenticeship, the relevant guild would certify them as journeymen who would travel across towns to learn more about the trade.

Market stalls in the town square

The market square would be at the centre of a medieval town and would hold markets at least once a week where local merchants would set up stall and sell their wares. Fairs were held several times a year and would attract foreign merchants into bringing fine wool, silks, spices, carpets and other items from far away lands. These fairs would last for days and would often attract performers such as strolling minstrels, performing tumblers, acrobats, and animal acts with trained bears and horses. 

CRIME & PUNISHMENT

The growth in population led to an increase in crime and the evolution of English justice from the Magna Carta would see juries of 12 men or a justice of the peace pass judgement. 

Gaols would generally be used to hold prisoners awaiting trial and Richard III's brief reign saw judicial reform that looked to protect the rights of the accused. Those who couldn't afford legal representation could have their cases heard by the Privy Council and the court would later be known as the Court of Requests. Bail legislation was also reformed to protect suspects from being imprisonment awaiting trial and asset seizure whilst ordering the translation of Laws and Statutes into English.

Petty crimes resulted in public shaming and humiliation

The sentences handed out to convicts would often involve severe punishments that looked to deter others from doing the same. Petty crimes resulted in being placed in the stocks to be publicly humiliated and shamed, stealing food to survive was punished with a hand being chopped off. More serious crimes would lead to punishment by death with heresy punished by being burnt at the stake, murderers were hanged and traitors would be executed by being hung, drawn and quartered in public as a deterrent.

The barbaric punishment of being hung, drawn and quartered would see the condemned hanged until they were half dead, taken down, and quartered by having their limbs torn by horses pulling them apart. The convict was still alive when their genitals and bowels would be cut from their bodies and thrown into a fire until finally being killed by decapitation.

Traitors would often be displayed as a warning to others

The body parts of traitors were often displayed as a warning to others like Jack Cade's torso being sent to the four corners of the rebel's home county of Kent and the decapitated heads of the Duke of York, Earl of Rutland and Earl of Salisbury were displayed on spikes atop of Micklegate Bar in York.

HEALTH

The Black Death had ravaged England in the 14th Century and fears of it returning were never far from the minds of those across all social classes. The wealthy would often live longer than the poor due to the unhygienic common living quarters of the commoners where a village or town street would be littered with human and animal waste. The town's sanitation would involve buckets of waste being thrown into the street whereas the wealthy were able to rid of their waste down the privy chute into a nearby moat or stream.

Monasteries had provided healthcare and lodging for the infirm for centuries but the lack of regular hospitals would lead to traders doubling up as doctors that included barbers as surgeons and gave rise to the village apothecary.

Health was often governed by the stars

The theory of the Four Humors from Greek doctor Galen was practiced over a millennium later and the unbalanced humors would be treated with blood letting either through piercing the skin or leeches. Religion, superstition and medical ignorance saw health governed by the stars and death or disease being reasoned by God's wrath in the form of omens. Such omens included the Solar Eclipse on the day of Queen Anne Neville's death or the rise of the sweating sickness after Henry Tudor had landed with French mercenaries in 1485 to claim the throne. 

Wars of the Roses Weaponary and Tactics

The wars raged across 15th Century England made it essential for forces to be properly armed and protected.

ARMOUR

Men-at-arms in the thick of the action were fitted with heavy armour with a breast-plate underneath a leather brigandine or chain-mail hauberk. Attached to the breastplate were the plate armoured gorget around the neck, pauldron over the shoulders, couter over the elbows, vambraces over the forearms, tassets over the thighs and culet over the lower back. Added protection was found with plate-armoured gauntlet gloves and knights wore lance rests attached to the breast plate to steady their lances for a firmer blow.

Horses were also glad in plate armour

The main disadvantage of heavy armour was the lack of mobility and the quick-moving infantry wore a mail shirt over a padded aketonmail, with added munitions plate covering the most important body parts.  Light armour mostly consisted of padded cloth and leather with the archer's bracer providing a leather armguard to protect the fletching of an arrow. 

A Richard III re-enactor wears a crowed sallet helmet

Helmets also varied in design depending on how much protection was needed. Heavy helmets were made from steel plate, covered the head with visors on bascinets, armets, sallets and close helmets. Richard III was likely wearing a crowned sallet when he charged Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth.

Medium helmets were made of steel, but didn't protect the entire head like the visor-less barbute helmet. Light helmets were usually caps made of cloth and leather but archers preferred the wide-brimmed steel kettle hats for greater field of vision and to shield their eyes from the sun. Helmets were often customised with different colours, plumes, coifs and bevors. 

Archers wore kettle helmets to shield their eyes from the sun

COMBAT WEAPONS

The advancements in protective armour led to the development of the longsword which allowed a double-handed grip with the sword's longer hilt. The finest swords of the era were stamped with a German Passau wolf and the unusually hard Toledo steel forged in Spain. Daggers were often used as a side-arm and the small, sharp bladed wound on top of Richard III's skull showed that they were used as execution weapons, with two hands likely used to push the pommel into Richard III's skull.

Other weapons used by men-at-arms included hammers, maces, axes, spears and pole arms like the halberd. The halberd was inexpensive to produce and very versatile in battle as the hook and axe head were able to pull horsemen to the ground. The large hole at the base of Richard III's skull shows that a halberd likely sliced the back of the king's head and struck the fatal blow. The bill hook was also effective at bringing down a horseman with the pronounced hook able to find a chink in the knight's armour. 

A halberd likely struck the fatal blow to Richard III

Men on horseback attacked in triangular formations, with the most heavily armored knights at the front. They defended themselves with shields and attacked with a wooden lance that would shatter upon impact. Richard III was the head of a triangular formation charging towards Henry Tudor and his lance shattered into the helmet of Tudor's standard bearer, Sir William Brandon.

RANGED WEAPONS

The longbow gained it's notoriety at the Battle of Agincourt with a fast reload, accurate archers, armour-piercing bodkin heads and light-weight bowstaves. Compulsory longbow training was enforced in 1470 and many of the fragile yew bowstaves would often break and needed replacing. This led to a shortage in yew and this was overcome by Richard III increasing the tax on ships arriving in English ports to 10 bowstaves per tun in cargo, up from 4 bowstaves decreed in the Statue of Westminster 1472.

Longbowmen in action at the Battle of Towton (Graham Turner)

An effective longbowman took years of strength and skill training whilst a crossbow could be used effectively after a week's training. The crossbow was more powerful than a longbow thanks to a greater release of kinetic energy but it was more inaccurate and had a slower shooting rate than an average longbow. The archers took central position in battle formations and usually engaged the enemy before a main assault of mounted knights. Crossbowmen were also utilised in counterattacks to protect their infantry.

Cannon fires at a Battle of Tewkesbury festival

Arrows would eventually be replaced by gunpowder and shot in the coming centuries. The Wars of the Roses saw artillery like culverins used to supplement infantry attacks and bombards brought siege to Bamburgh Castle in 1464. Transporting artillery from camp-to-camp provided to be cumbersome and firearms, such as hand culverins, hand bombards and hand cannons developed.

TACTICS

In the early 1450s the act of gathering troops and marching to battle didn't usually result in combat as Duke of York's standoff at Dartford showed. Henry VI may have been expecting the same when he garrisoned the wall-less town of St. Albans in 1455 but York decided to end hours of stalemate by launching the First Battle of St. Albans.

A commander would line his troops into three 'battles' - the vanguard leading the attack, the main in the middle, and the rearguard often holding back reserves. Archers had previously launched the opening salvo into opposing infantry but by the mid-1400s this had developed into a stalemate of opposing bowmen fighting each other. Men-at-arms would either lead the vanguard on foot (Battle of Northampton) or on horseback (Battle of Blore Heath). 

Lord Audley leads a cavalry charge at Blore Heath

Armies made best use of their terrain and would fortify their positions by using bodies of water and marshland, digging trenches and setting up wooden spikes to deter on-coming cavalry. Deception was used effectively by Earl of Salisbury at Blore Heath by removing his soldiers from the front line to give the impression of retreat to Lord Audley. Audley was lured into taking his cavalry over a stream and was unable to avoid Salisbury's returning men.

The rank-and-file troops were gathered by their lords or knights and served in all of their disputes wearing the lord's ‘livery’ and fought under their banner. In return, the lord ‘maintained’ their tenants' rights and claims. This ‘livery and maintenance’ soon developed into ‘bastard feudalism’ as cash rewards replaced traditional land gains. 

The level of professionalism varied amongst the troops who would often flee the battlefield or surrender unarmed when the fight was lost. The Wars of the Roses was mainly a dispute between noble families and the rank-and-file were spared the bloodshed of their noble commanders whose heavy armour would hinder them escaping a melee.  

Battle of Wakefield saw the end of chivalric ransoms

The Battle of Wakefield saw the conflict take a grisly turn when captured nobles were executed instead of being customarily ransomed and these deaths made the battles extremely personal. The Battle of Ludford Bridge was a rare occasion in the Wars of the Roses where battle commanders, facing defeat, fled the battlefield to fight another day. The move by York to withdraw should be seen as calculated as he was hugely outnumbered following a large defection. Cowardice at Ludford should be viewed with caution as most of those who fled the battlefield - York, his son, the Earl of Rutland, Rutland's uncle, Salisbury and Salisbury's son, the Earl of Warwick, would later die in, or shortly after, battle.

The other escapee of Ludford was York's eldest son, Edward, who would claim the throne in 1461 after fighting amongst 50,000 men at the Battle of Towton that left 26,000 dead. Richard III would also charge into battle and refused to withdraw from the Battle of Bosworth after he was dismounted. Bosworth would ultimately be decided by those fighting under livery and maintenance as Sir William Stanley led his men at the crucial moment to attack the king.

The 30 years between the First Battle of St. Albans and Bosworth had periods of uneasy rest but the brutal battles and the twisted machinations would ensure that blood would soon be spilt and the long vaunted days of chivalry were over