Profile - Edmund Plantagenet, Earl of Rutland 1443-1460

Edmund Plantagenent, Earl of Rutland, was second son to Richard, Duke of York, who fought alongside his father at the Battle of Wakefield.

BOY CHANCELLOR

Rutland was born in Rouen, France, in 17 May 1443 as the fifth child and second surviving son of the Duke of York and Cecily Neville. Edmund was granted the Earldom in 1446 and was tutored by Richard Croft at Ludlow Castle, his father's Shropshire estate. York showed his love to his eldest sons, Edward, Earl of March, and Rutland, by giving them green gowns as Easter gifts in 1454 despite York being busy at court becoming Protector of the Realm that spring.

York held the title Lieutenant of Ireland and appointed Rutland as Lord Chancellor of Ireland when his son was just eight-year-old. With Rutland underage, governing Ireland's coffers was tasked to Deputy Chancellors Edmund Oldhall, brother to York's Chamberlain, and then John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury. 

Following defeat at the Battle of Ludford Bridge on 12 October 1459, York took Rutland to Ireland via Devon and Wales, whilst leaving his wife and young children, Margaret, George and Richard, to the might of the royal army. The 16-year-old Rutland was able to study his father command order and respect in Ireland but soon discovered their stay in exile wouldn't last long after York discussed return plans with his nephew, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, at Waterford in spring 1460.

York and Rutland returned from Ireland on 8 September 1460, landing in north Wales, and traveled to Ludlow and Hereford. It was at Hereford where Rutland met up with his mother and younger siblings but he followed his father's march south to London. York's march was signaled with the flying of the royal standard as if it was his own and York proclaimed his right to the throne by placing a hand upon it on 10 October 1460.

York's actions were derisive and alienated his supporters including Warwick and his father, Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury. An incensed Warwick challenged York in the pretender's Westminster apartments but a brave and loyal Rutland came to his father's defence by saying to Warwick, "Fair Sir, be not angry, for you know that we have the true right to the crown, and that my lord and father must have it."   

Rutland clashed with the Earl of Warwick following York's public claim to the throne

Rutland's older brother Edward, who had escaped Ludford Bridge to Calais with Warwick, looked to calm the atmosphere by saying to Rutland, "Brother, vex no man, for all shall be well." Edward left the apartments with Warwick and Rutland stayed by his father's side. Later that month, Parliament passed an Act of Accord that decreed York and his heirs would inherit the throne after Henry VI, despite the fact that the king had a son, Prince Edward of Westminster.

Rutland accompanied his father's march north from London on 9 December 1460 after York and Salisbury's northern estates had been looted by Lancastrian forces. After a skirmish with the troops of Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, at Worksop, Nottinghamshire, York's army reached Sandal Castle near Wakefield on 21 December 1460.

BATTLE

The Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460 saw York lead his men out of Sandal Castle in search for a foraging party who had earlier left under the  apparent safety of a Christmas truce. The Lancastrian forces were led by Somerset, Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and Lord John Clifford, whose fathers had all died at First Battle of St. Albans five years previously.

York was ambushed on Wakefield Green and commanded his son to flee the battle to meet up with his brother, Edward, who was building up reinforcements in the Welsh marches. Under protest, Rutland left the battlefield and made it as far as Wakefield Bridge before he was captured. Clifford met his captive on the bridge and was urged by Rutland's tutor, priest Robert Aspell to ransom Rutland, "for he is the Prince's son, and peradventure may do you good hereafter." Clifford replied in anger, "By God’s blood, thy father slew mine and so will I do thee and thy kin,” before stabbing Rutland to death.

Rutland begs Sir John Clifford for mercy

The decapitated head of Rutland would soon join the heads of his father and uncle on spikes atop of Micklegate Bar in York. The bodies of Rutland and York were hastily buried in Pontefract Priory until Edward, now King Edward IV, reinterred them in the family vault at Fotheringhay Castle on 30 January 1466.

Profile - William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, 1396-1450

William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, was a favourite in Henry VI's court whose self-invested policies would lead to public hatred and his death.

COMMANDER

He was born on 16 October 1396 at Cotton, Suffolk, son to Michael de la Pole, 2nd Earl of Suffolk, and Katherine de Stafford. Suffolk had served loyally in France for 17 years where he was seriously wounded in the Siege of Harfleur in 1415, commanded English forces at the Siege of Orléans in 1429 and surrendered shortly afterwards at Jargeau. Suffolk remained a prisoner of war until he was ransomed in 1431.

Suffolk unsuccessfully commanded the English in the Siege of Orleans

Suffolk was rewarded for his service when he returned to England by being appointed Constable of Wallingford in 1434. He had been awarded command of Orléans after the death on 3 November 1428 of his friend, Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury. After returning from France, Suffolk married Salisbury's widow, Alice Chaucer, grand-daughter to poet, Geoffrey Chaucer. Suffolk was tired of war with the French and aligned himself with Cardinal Henry Beaufort who shared the same anti-war sentiment.

Beaufort clashed with Henry VI's uncle Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, during the king's minority. Gloucester wanted to continue war with France following the disastrous Treaty of Arras in 1435 when England were betrayed by their traditional ally, Burgundy. Worse was to come for the young king when his mother, Catherine of Valois, died on 3 January 1437 and the king's half brothers, Edmund and Jasper Tudor, were placed in the care of Suffolk's sister, abbess of Barking Abbey, Katherine de la Pole.

Henry VI came of age in 1437 but still deferred to his Council and rewarded Beaufort's faction with lands and titles. Richard, Duke of York's lieutenancy of France was undermined by John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, naming himself Lieutenant of Aquitaine and Captain-General of Guienne. The king gave Somerset much needed troops and resources away from York and this would be the first of many disregards the king had for York, setting in motion the conflicts that lay ahead. 

MATCH MAKER

Somerset's daughter, Margaret Beaufort, was born on 31 May 1443 and Somerset negotiated with the king that Margaret's wardship and marriage should only be decided by her mother. Somerset soon fell out of favour with the king and subsequently died on 27 May 1444 leaving Margaret as heiress. Henry VI broke the agreement four days later by giving Margaret's wardship to Suffolk and the heiress remained with her mother.

Suffolk's only legitimate heir, John de la Pole, was born on 27 September 1442, and Suffolk betrothed him to Margaret Beaufort. The king himself had yet to wed and Cardinal Beaufort and Suffolk looked to a French alliance to bring peace between the two countries.

The king was attracted to the commissioned portraits of Margaret of Anjou, niece of the French King Charles VII, and Suffolk was begrudgingly sent to France to actively participate in discussions he knew would be unpopular with the English public. Margaret's father, Rene of Anjou, was penniless and made it plain to Suffolk that there wouldn't be a customary dowry. Rene went further by demanding the English-owned lands of Maine and Anjou to be returned to him and this was backed by Charles VII.

Suffolk brokered the marriage of Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou 

Suffolk knew these demands would infuriate the English court and public alike but Henry VI readily agreed when he discovered the Burgundian prince, Charles Count Nevers, was also seeking Margaret's hand in marriage. Suffolk included the caveat of England retaining their French conquests of Aquitaine and Normandy but he was unable to include a two-year truce in the Treaty of Tours. 

Suffolk met the future queen at Tours and was impressed with her beauty and poise. He prepared Margaret for her future role and carried her ashore after Margaret got sea sick from the English Channel crossing. Suffolk's wife soon became one of the queen's ladies in waiting.

'JACKNAPES'

The duke's ascent to power from his merchant class beginnings led to Suffolk earning the nickname 'Jacknapes' for being an upstart and his enemies accused him of having an affair with the queen. The 15-year-old queen was indeed in awe of the charming, suave and kindly Suffolk who, 33 years her senior, was seen as a father-figure to replace her own absent father.  The rumours were fueled when Suffolk called the couple "ye lover" and "ye flower" in his verse to the queen, "How ye lover is set to serve ye flower... Mine heart is set and all mine whole intent."

Suffolk's rise to power was complete in 1447. The year began with Parliament meeting at Bury St. Edmonds in Suffolk where the duke charged Gloucester for treason and spreading rumours of the queen's infidelity with Suffolk. Gloucester denied all charges but Margaret coldly told Gloucester that "the King knows your merits, my lord." Gloucester was soon arrested and died under house arrest. Suffolk was seen to have murdered the king's uncle but evidence pointed to death of the 57-year-old gluttonous duke by natural means, possibly from a stroke.

Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester's death cleared the way for Suffolk

Cardinal Beaufort death on 15 March 1447 brought his nephew Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, and Suffolk in control of government with Suffolk being promoted to Chamberlain, Admiral of England and Captain of Calais. York was proving to be an obstacle for the Beaufort faction and Suffolk effectively exiled him by naming York as Lieutenant of Ireland and gave York's previous position as Lieutenant of France to Somerset. 

Suffolk's influence and prestige was crowned in 1448 when he became the first to hold a dukedom without being a member or relative of the royal family. Public opinion had been against Suffolk since the royal marriage negotiations and this turned to hatred when Somerset's disastrous lieutenancy of France saw the French renege on their promises to leave Normandy and Aquitaine alone to the English.

DOWNFALL

Suffolk's supporters in parliament deserted him and on 9 January 1450, Adam Moleyns, Bishop of Chichester and former Lord Privy Seal, was in Portsmouth explaining Suffolk's actions to soldiers returning from France. Moleyns had brought the soldiers long awaited wages but the soldiers turned on Moleyns and lynched him after receiving less than expected wages.  

Suffolk looked to reaffirm his power base and secured the marriage of his son John to his seven-year-old ward, Margaret Beaufort, to ensure his heirs would have royal blood. He addressed Parliament on 22 January 1450 and reminded them that he had loyally served the crown home and abroad for almost 40 years and that the recent 'great infamy and defamation' was misunderstood. Parliament ignored Suffolk's pleas and on 26 January 1450 they petitioned the king for his arrest and impeachment.

The king obliged and Suffolk was sent to the Tower of London to await charges that were handed down on 7 February 1450. Amongst the most serious of charges against Suffolk was conspiring with the French ambassador to plot a French invasion of England in 1447 but no evidence could support this claim. Under the royal prerogative, Henry VI decreed that he would pass judgement on Suffolk and requested him to explain himself. Suffolk denied all charges and described them as "too horrible to speak more of, utterly false and untrue." The queen attempted to rescue her court favourite and convinced the king to send Suffolk into exile.

Parliament and it's people were furious at the royal disregard for justice and Suffolk faced a mob as he traveled to Wingfield in Suffolk before fleeing the country. Suffolk wrote to his son and implored him to be loyal to God and his sovereign before leaving for Calais on Thursday 30 April 1450. That night, Suffolk was intercepted in the Straits of Dover by the ship, Nicholas of the Tower, and the duke was disheartened that he had to escape the 'danger of the Tower' which a seer had prophesied.

Sailors aboard Nicholas of the Tower caught, tried and executed Suffolk

"Welcome, Traitor!" greeted Suffolk when he came aboard the Tower and was found guilty of his crimes two days later. Suffolk was taken on to a small boat in front of his fleet of three ships and was executed by a rusty sword that took six strokes to chop off his head.

Suffolk's body was dumped on a Dover beach and wasn't moved for a month until the king ordered it to be removed and later buried at Carthusian Priory in Hull. His death was revealed to the queen by Alice Chaucer and Suffolk's wife must have been struck by how grief-stricken Margaret was as the queen didn't eat for three days and wept uncontrollably.

Margaret of Anjou's grief soon turned to anger as she looked to Somerset and her courtiers to avenge her beloved Suffolk with the Duke of York becoming the queen's primary target.

Profile - Jack Cade

Jack Cade led an ultimately unsuccessful rebellion in the south-east of England which identified Richard, Duke of York, as the popular alternative to King Henry VI.

ROAD TO REBELLION

Public mistrust of the king and his council developed after the loss of English territories on the French mainland. The territories of Maine and Anjou had been given to the French in exchange for the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou and key negotiator, William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, took the blame. 

Parliament impeached Suffolk but the queen's intervention led Henry VI to send Suffolk into exile. Suffolk was unable to reach the safety of Calais after being intercepted in the Straits of Dover by the ship, Nicholas of the Tower, and Suffolk was subject to a mock trial. Suffolk was found guilty of his crimes by those on board the ship and he was executed. Suffolk's decapitated body was later found on a beach in Dover, Kent.

The people of Kent, already fearful of a French invasion, became anxious over a possible reprisal for Suffolk's death and Jack Cade, the "Captain of Kent", became a figurehead.

Henry VI's mismanagement created dissent

Cade's manifesto 'The Complaint of the Poor Commons of Kent' detailed numerous grievances towards the king for promoting and accepting the word of corrupt officials. The manifesto detailed Kent's innocence towards Suffolk's execution and demanded the removal of the king's "friends" and if the king refused, Cade would "destroy" him and replace Henry VI with the Duke of York.

Kent officials close to the king, including James Fiennes, Lord Saye, and his son-in-law William Crowmer, were accused by Cade of election rigging and extortion. Saye and Crowmer had served as sheriffs of Kent and were members of the king's council, with Saye appointed Lord Treasurer in 1449.

Henry VI didn't respond to the manifesto and on 24 May 1450 hundreds of armed men gathered at Ashford and Cade towards London. Cade's origins are unknown but it was believed he was born in Ireland in the 1420s, served in the household of a Sussex knight and fought in France. His military experience became vital in organising his troops to rebel against the king. 

"AMEND-ALL"

Cade was known by his followers as "John Mend-all" or "John Amend-all" due to his willingness to hear people's complaints and restore order. Cade now took on the alias "John Mortimer" to appeal to York and his followers who were descended from Edmund Mortimer, the named heir of Richard II who was deposed by Henry IV, the grandfather of the current king. 

Cade appealed to Duke of York by taking his descendants' name

Cade's men numbered 5,000 in early June 1450 as they encamped at Blackheath, 12 miles southeast of the capital. The rebels varied from local traders, farmers and sailors to a knight who had fought at Agincourt, three sheriffs and two members of Parliament. Cade sent Henry VI a copy of his manifesto to explain his terms to the king's representatives but the Council rejected all of the demands and the king ordered the army to disperse.

The rebels retreated to Sevenoaks in Kent and waited for reinforcements from nearby Sussex. The king was advised to lead the royal forces against the rebels but the queen, fearful of Henry VI's safety, convinced him to send the Stafford brothers, Sir Humphrey and William, to command the royal forces at Sevenoaks. The Battle of Sevenoaks lasted two hours with heavy losses on both sides but the deaths of the Staffords brought victory to the rebels. The royal couple fled to Greenwich and Lord Saye refused the queen's wish for him to accompany them, knowing that the rebels would hotly pursue them.

The king ordered Saye and Crowmer to be placed in custody for their own protection and Henry VI fled London to Kenilworth, Warwickshire, leaving Cade to march on London. Unrest broke out in Wiltshire where William Ayscough, Bishop of Salisbury, and the king's confessor, was attacked by his congregation in Edington Church and murdered. The much-hated bishop was a close ally of Suffolk and was blamed for the lack of a royal heir after instructing the king to avoid marital sex whenever possible.

LORD OF THE CAPITAL

Cade, clad in Stafford's armour, arrived on the south bank of the Thames and took up residence in the White Hart Inn in Southark. The next day, Cade crossed London Bridge dressed as a pretender in a blue velvet gown and gilded spurs, whilst holding a gold nail- studded shield and a sword. Cade cut the drawbridge ropes to prevent it to be raised against him and, once in the capital, lightly struck the London Stone with his sword and cried out, "Now is Mortimer lord of this city!" 

James Fiennes, Lord Saye, is brought before Jack Cade (Charles Lucy)

The rebels focused on the imprisoned Kentish lords and Crowmer was taken from Fleet Prison by Cade and Saye was dragged from the Tower to face trial at the Guildhall. The lords were found guilty, executed and Saye's naked body was bound and tied to a horse to be paraded around the capital. The heads of the two lords were put on pikes and their bearers pushed them together to make them 'kiss' and the crowd roared with laughter.

TRAITOR

Cade's men soon became rowdy and their triumphant leader forgot his promises to his respectful followers that he wouldn't loot the capital and lost local support. After Cade's army returned to Southwark via London Bridge for the night, the London officials closed the bridge to prevent Cade from re-entering the city. 

The overnight battle over London Bridge lasted 10 hours

The next evening saw Cade trying to gain entry back into the city and he was repulsed by Captain Matthew Gough's garrison from the Tower. A furious battle broke out at 10pm on London Bridge, lasting an exhaustive 10 hours that left Gough dead and Cade in retreat. 

Cardinal Kempe was sent on behalf of the government to negotiate with Cade and the Cardinal promised royal pardons and agreed to the demands of the Cade's manifesto. Pardons were issued and the rebels dispersed but Cade refused to withdraw until the demands were agreed in Parliament. Cade's pardon was revoked after it was revealed his pardon had been awarded to his alias, John Mortimer, and he was declared a traitor on 10 July with a 1000-mark bounty on his head.

Cade's supporters deserted him and Cade fled to Lewes, Sussex, but was cornered by Kent sheriff, Alexander Iden, in Heathfield, East Sussex, on 12 July 1450. Iden took Cade back to London after defeating him in a fight but his captive died of his wounds before he reached the capital.

Jack Cade's memorial plaque on Cade Street, Heathfield in Sussex

The Council was doubtful that Iden had caught the right man until the innkeeper's wife at the White Hart identified Cade's body.  Cade was beheaded and his spiked head was placed on London Bridge looking towards Kent as a warning. The royal couple had returned to the capital on 10 July and Henry VI looked to punish the rebels. The king passed judgement on the deaths of the captured rebels, eight at Cantebury and 26 at Rochester in what became know as the 'harvest of heads'.

Cade's Rebellion was unsuccessful thanks to Cade's hubris and lustful troops but it showed that Henry VI was vulnerable. York observed from his seat in Ireland that Henry VI was easily influenced, left London to the mercy of rebels and that public opinion was against the royal court. These flaws would be further examined over the next 20 years as York and his supporters vied with the Lancastrians for the throne by arguing demands and reform policies seen in Cade's manifesto.

Profile - Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, 1406-1455

Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, enjoyed favouritism at the royal court despite his ineptness and created many enemies, the biggest of which was Richard, Duke of York.

RISE TO POWER

The Duke was born in 1406 to John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset and Margaret Holland and his paternal grandparents were John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and his mistress, Katherine Swyford. 

Somerset' rise to power owes credit to the actions of his uncle, Cardinal Beaufort, who wielded influence on the Privy Council and Somerset became Lieutenant of France in 1446. York was expecting a third term in office in France and was aggrieved to be replaced by Somerset.

Cardinal Beaufort - Somerset's powerful uncle

The French campaign of the late 1440s turned into a disaster for Somerset who was unprepared for France breaking truce and taking Normandy from the English. Somerset, stationed in Rouen, negotiated with the French to hand over the city if they allowed England to keep towns along the Norman coast. The French soon broke terms and captured the ports of Honfleur and Harfleur, famously won by Henry V almost 35 years previously.

DISCONTENT

England was now full of discontent following the capitulation in France and the south coast was fearful of a French invasion. Jack Cade led a rebellion against the king and he publicly named York as a successor to the throne. York's claim to the throne was a strong one with him being great-great-great grandson to Edward III's third son, Lionel of Antwerp and grandson to Edward III's fifth son, Edmund of Langley. Somerset also had royal blood as he descended from Edward III's fourth son, John of Gaunt, and the descending Beauforts were declared legitimate by Richard II on the provision that they wouldn't claim the throne. Many at court wondered whether Somerset would actually stake a claim to the throne after Cardinal Beaufort had died in 1447 and the king had yet borne an heir. 

Somerset's loss of Normandy was completed in July 1450 when he handed Caen over to the French and York demanded that Somerset be held to account. King Henry VI agreed to arrest Somerset but his wife, Margaret of Anjou, convinced the king to not only remove charges against Somerset, but to also appoint him as Constable of England. The 20-year-old queen had grown close to Somerset and rumours spread throughout court that Margaret was cuckolding the king with Somerset.

Margaret of Anjou - Somerset's confidant and rumoured lover

York returned to England from his lieutenancy of Ireland in September 1450 and implored the king to imprison Somerset for his failures. Parliament impeached Somerset three months later and was taken to the Tower of London but the queen intervened once again and ordered his releases. Londoners loyal to York were incensed and ransacked Somerset's home, much to the king's dismay.

Troops were rallied by York and marched to London to find the capital gates locked. York faced Henry VI's army at Dartford on March 2 1451 and the king agreed to York's demands of arresting Somerset and declaring York his heir in exchange for the duke's allegiance. The queen, unaware of the bargain, saw her beloved Somerset arrested the next day and argued with the king for his release. 

York entered the king's tent to continue negotiations and came across the queen, with Somerset by her side, arguing with the king. Margaret projected her anger towards York and demanded him to be arrested instead. The king once again bowed to his queen by releasing Somerset and had York swear an oath of allegiance at St. Paul's Cathedral. York was left dismayed when Somerset was appointed Captain of Calais and removed himself from court.

Somerset's rise to power also aggrieved other nobles as he was awarded wardship of Glamorgan in June 1453 on lands owned by Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. This land dispute would result in Warwick crucially siding with his uncle, Duke of York, a decision that would later haunt Somerset.

A month later, English defeat at the Battle of Castillon resulted in the loss of Gascony and left Calais as the only English possession in mainland France. This sent Henry VI into a mental breakdown that would leave the king unable to recognise his new born son, Prince Edward. Henry VI's disregard of his son led many, including Warwick, to question whether the prince was actually the result of an adulterous affair between Somerset and the queen.

On 24 October 1453, Somerset, in the queen's name, summoned a Great Council to determine a possible regency and York was uninvited. Somerset relented to the nobles' protests and allowed York to attend. York flexed his muscles and, upon appointment as Protector of the Realm, placed Somerset in the Tower of London. The king regained his senses in late 1454 and would listen to his wife's demands once again by releasing Somerset and reinstated him as Captain of Calais.

BOSOM OF POWER

York once again removed himself from court and began arming himself for a potential conflict. Somerset was back in the bosom of power with the queen by his side and the two effectively ruled England. They summoned a Great Council meeting to be held in Leicester instead of London and York viewed his invitation as a possible ruse. Somerset and the queen convinced the king that York's refusal to attend was a declaration of war and Henry VI ordered York to attend.

On 22 May 1455, York's forces, along with Warwick and his father, Earl of Salisbury, met the royal army at the First Battle of St Albans. York had looked to avoid conflict with Henry VI and, like Dartford, sent word of negotiations to the king. Somerset goaded the king to send back words of aggression to York who attacked the town shortly thereafter.

York and Salisbury led the attack on the Lancastrian defences but Lord Thomas Clifford repulsed their efforts. Warwick came through the inn gardens and attacked Clifford from the rear. Lancastrians signalled the call to arms with a tolling of the abbey bell and Somerset joined the melee. He was in a desperate hand-to-hand combat by Castle Inn and became distracted when he saw the inn's sign. He recognised a soothsayer's prophecy to him that said to stay away from castles and his hesitancy allowed the Yorkist soldier to strike home. 

A plaque marking the spot of Somerset's death in modern St. Albans

York was victorious at St Albans and escorted the king back to London. Somerset was buried in St. Albans Abbey but his cause was taken up by his son, Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, who avenged his father's death five years later at the Battle of Wakefield with the death of the Duke of York.

Profile - Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury 1400-1460

Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, was a key Yorkist supporter in the beginning of the Wars of the Roses, and was also brother-in-law to Richard, Duke of York.

WARDEN OF THE NORTH

The Earl of Salisbury was born in 1400 at Raby Castle in County Durham and was the eldest son of Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, and Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford. Salisbury's father was responsible for the wardship of the orphaned Duke of York, and Ralph Neville betrothed the wealthy duke to his youngest daughter, Cecily.

Richard Neville was married to Alice Montacute, daughter and heiress of Thomas Montacute, the Earl of Salisbury, sometime before February 1421 when they attended the coronation of Queen Catherine of Valois as a married couple. Ralph Neville died in 1425 and Richard inherited the family residence of Middleham Castle with the Earldom of Salisbury coming three years later when Alice's father died.

Middleham Castle - Seat of Neville Power

Salisbury became a commander at the age of 20 when appointed Warden of the West March on the Scottish border and was rewarded by Henry V in his appointment of Justice of the Peace in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham. Salisbury began to frequent the royal court and accompanied the young King Henry VI to France for his coronation in 1431 and his fealty was rewarded by becoming Warden of the East March on the Welsh border.

In 1436, Salisbury resigned from both posts and accompanied York, the newly appointed Lieutenant of France, with 1,300 men-at-arms and archers to protect English lands on the French domain. Salisbury returned the following year and was repaid with a seat on the King's Council whilst also resuming the Wardenship of the West March. The wardenship caused resentment with the Percy family, who had lands just south of the Scottish border in Northumberland.

The Percys were aggrieved when Salisbury recruited men in their Cumberland and Westmorland estates and the Percys flouted Salisbury's rule during the Battle of Sark against the Scots in 1448. Salisbury was to feel the wrath of the Percys up close on 24 August 1453 when Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, attacked Salisbury at Heworth Moor, outside York, on the journey home to Sheriff Hutton. Salisbury was returning from the wedding of his son Thomas and he fought off Egremont's men unscathed.

YORKIST

Salisbury's eldest son became Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick when he married the Warwick heiress Anne Beauchamp in 1449. Warwick was to exceed his father in lands, wealth and titles but remained loyal and Salisbury would take a high place in the Privy Council after Henry VI's mental breakdown. 

During the king's illness, York was elected Protector of the Realm on 27 March 1454 and assigned his brother-in-law as Chancellor. Salisbury wasn't able to tackle government overspending for long as York's influence diminished when Henry VI regained his sense on Christmas Day 1454. York and Warwick's enemy, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, was released from the Tower of London and Salisbury resigned as Chancellor in 1455.

Henry VI's return to health saw Salisbury resign as Chancellor

English queen, Margaret of Anjou, focused her resentment on the Yorkists and requested the nobles to attend a Great Council meeting in Leicester on 21 May 1455. York, along with Salisbury and Warwick, saw the invitation as a ruse and took up arms to intercept the royal party before they reached Leicester.

Yorkist and royal forces clashed at the First Battle of St. Albans where Salisbury's and York's attempts to break the Lancastrian front line was assisted by Warwick's surprise attack from Lord Thomas Clifford's rear. The Lancastrian army was defeated and the king's lieutenants, including Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland, were killed. Henry VI was discovered in a tanner's house and Salisbury bent the knee with York and Warwick to show their allegiance to the king. 

Salisbury rode alongside the king as he was escorted back to London and his son was appointed Captain of Calais after York was proclaimed Constable of England that was later relinquished when Henry VI returned to good health. Warwick kept his captaincy of Calais and Margaret convinced the king to move the royal court to Coventry in Lancastrian heartland. York and Salisbury retired to their estates of Ludlow and Middleham but Salisbury was soon aggravated by the Percys.

Henry VI looked for peace throughout the nobility and called for talks in early 1458. The talks were disrupted by Sir John Clifford, Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland and Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, whose fathers died at St. Albans. Henry VI conceded and allowed them to be compensated by York, Salisbury and Warwick. The peace talks culminated at Loveday 24 March 1458 but the public display of peace didn't continue as Margaret of Anjou and Warwick sparred with each other either side of the English Channel with Warwick lucky to escape London with his life.

MASTER OF DECEPTION

York and Salisbury gathered troops in anticipation and word was sent to Warwick to do the same. Salisbury left Middleham and marched south-west to meet York but was intercepted by royal forces at the Battle of Blore Heath on 23 September 1459. 

Lord Audley leads the attack on Salisbury

Margaret of Anjou had heard of Salisbury's movements and sent James Tuchet, Lord Audley, to intercept him. Audley chose the open field of Blore Heath in Staffordshire to attack Salisbury with his 10,000 men and took position behind a stream out Salisbury's archers range. Salisbury showed his experience by enticing Audley to cavalry charge when he feinted a retreat and two subsequent charges from the Lancastrians couldn't break Salisbury's lines. The fighting left 2,000 Lancastrians, including Audley, dead.

Salisbury was aware that the main Lancastrian army was nearby and tasked a friar to fire cannons left on the battlefield to mask his retreat. This ingenuity resulted in Salisbury linking up with York and Warwick by Ludlow. The royal army forced York to encamp south of Ludlow at the Battle of Ludford Bridge. The king's presence led to the defection of Warwick's forces and the three Yorkist commanders fled the battlefield with Salisbury, Warwick and York's son, Edward, Earl of March, headed south to Calais.

Exile in Calais lasted eight months with Warwick meeting with York in Ireland in March 1460 to plan their return two months later. Salisbury stayed in London to hold the city as Warwick and March successfully fought the royal forces at Battle of Northampton. Warwick returned to London with the king and York came to the city on 10 October 1460 to claim the throne for himself. York's unsuccessful public display to take the throne for himself alienated Salisbury and Warwick who were hesitant in deposing the king.

An Act of Accord on 24 October 1460 decreed that York and his subsequent heirs would inherit the throne after Henry VI but Margaret of Anjou was courting Scottish support with James III. 

News of Northumberland mobilising forces and raiding Salisbury and York estates led the two nobles, along with York's second eldest son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland, to leave London and march north. The Yorkist army clashed with Edmund Beaufort's army at Worksop, Nottinghamshire, and reached Sandal Castle near Wakefield on 21 December 1460. York was drawn out onto Wakefield Green and ambushed at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460. 

A crushing Yorkist defeat saw York die on the battlefield and Rutland was caught fleeing the battle and executed. Salisbury's attempt to flee the lost battle lasted a few more hours than Rutland's and he was caught and held at Pontefract Castle. Salisbury's captors were contemplating a ransom when the earl bribed a jailor to apparent safety but commoners saw Salisbury leaving, sprung an attack and executed him.

Salisbury's head would be spiked alongside those of York and Rutland on Mickelgate Bar in York but the Neville dynasty didn't end there. Warwick would later be the "Kingmaker" and Salisbury's grand-daughter, Anne Neville, became Queen Consort when Richard III came to the throne 23 years after the rout at Wakefield.

Profile - Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, Part 2 1458-1460

Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, will forever be known as the "Kingmaker" due to the power he wielded during the Wars of the Roses.

PIRATE

Warwick returned to Calais in the spring of 1458 and began courting friendship with Phillip of Burgundy, an important trade ally. Warwick looked to negotiate Prince Edward's betrothal to a Burgundian princess without King Henry VI and Queen Margaret of Anjou knowledge. Warwick continued to frustrate the royal couple by disregarding a truce between England and the Hanseatic League and plundered the ships of German wool traders as they entered the English Channel.

Map of 15th Century Calais

The queen summoned Warwick to London to answer for his piracy and Warwick arrived in the capital with 600 retainers to ward off the queen's threats. Warwick returned to the capital later that year and an accident by the king's scullion nearly left Warwick impaled on a spit in the royal kitchens. Warwick's men, suspicious of a plot, looked to kill the scullion and a fight broke out with the royal servants. Warwick overwhelmed the royal guard, seized the scullion and brought him before the queen. Margaret astutely ordered the kitchen orderly to death for attempted murder but later allowed the scullion to escape and flee to Yorkshire. 

Margaret persuaded the Council that it was Warwick who instigated the fight and had them issue an arrest warrant. Warwick fled to Calais  but returned when he heard of the queen's intentions of replacing him with Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, as Captain of Calais. Warwick defiantly stood in front of the Council and reminded them that it was Parliament who appointed him as Captain of Calais and only Parliament could revoke his position. Warwick was attacked as he left the council chambers by retainers loyal to Margaret partisans, Somerset and the Earl of Wiltshire, and Warwick narrowly escaped to Calais.

Richard Duke of York and Warwick's father, Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, gathered troops and sent word to Warwick for assistance. Warwick rallied 200 men-at-arms and 400 archers to be commanded by Calais Master Porter, Andrew Trollope, and Warwick left Calais under the watch of his uncle, Lord Fauconberg.

York had rallied his troops near his residence of Ludlow in the Welsh marches and Salisbury travelled south from Middleham, Yorkshire, to join him. Warwick landed in Kent and marched north uncontested through London and on to Warwick Castle but the royal forces reached Warwick ahead of him and blocked the road north towards Salisbury. Warwick continued west and met up with York, and a battle-hardened Salisbury after Warwick's father was victorious in the Battle of Blore Heath. 

The Yorkist commanders, after taking communion at Worcester Cathedral, swore an oath of allegiance and respect to the king but Henry VI was persuaded by Margaret to ignore it. The king's forces pursued York south of Ludlow and York's army encamped on the shore of the River Tern, for the Battle of Ludford Bridge. 

BETRAYED

York 's outnumbered men were overawed in seeing the royal standard flying across the other side of the bridge and were unwilling to fight against the king himself. Henry VI seized on this and sent word to the Yorkists that a free pardon would be given to anyone, apart from Salisbury, who defected and this offer was too good a opportunity to miss for Trollope. Warwick's Calais contingent came over to the Lancastrians and York was fearful of Trollope informing the royal commanders details of his troop formations.

York, Salisbury and Warwick told their captains that they were to spend the night of October 12 1459 at Ludlow in order to plan their next move. The commanders used the cover of night to make their escape and fled the battlefield. The remaining Yorkist soldiers woke up to see their leaders gone and peacefully surrendered to the king. 

Flee into exile began at Ludford Bridge

York had taken his second eldest son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland, with him to Ireland whilst Warwick and Salisbury fled to Calais and were accompanied by York's eldest son, Edward, Earl of March. York had left behind his wife Cecily, daughter Margaret, and his youngest sons, George and Richard, to the mercy of the Lancastrian army and the family were found at Ludlow Market Cross. Cecily's sister and Warwick's fellow aunt, Anne, took them into care under the watchful eye of Anne's husband, Duke of Buckingham.

Warwick returned to Calais and was supported by it's people who rallied against Somerset, the newly appointed Captain of Calais. Somerset looked to assert his title by taking Calais for himself but found the city gate locked. Somerset was able to establish a base in nearby Guisnes and appointed Trollope the town's bailiff due, in part, to Trollope's knowledge of the area. Somerset continued to mount attacks on Calais but Warwick remained unnerved.  

Warwick still had one of his ships moored in Sandwich and the queen sent the husband of long-time friend, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, to commandeer the vessel. Richard Woodville, who was now Earl Rivers, and his son, Anthony, arrived at Sandwich but were soon taken prisoner by Warwick's supporters. The Woodvilles were taken across the English Channel and Warwick, Salisbury and March ridiculed their captives. Warwick especially berated Earl Rivers for being a son of a squire who had married himself into the nobility to become a lord.  

RETURN

Warwick was able to sail uncontested to Ireland to meet with York to plan their return from exile and Warwick, Salisbury and March landed in Sandwich on 26 June 1460. Salisbury stayed behind in London and Warwick marched north with 10,000 men towards the royal forces in Coventry. The Yorkist grievances were taken by three emissaries but were denied access to the king by Buckingham who responded that "the Earl of Warwick shall not come to the King's presence and if he comes he shall die." The two forces met at the Battle of Northampton on 10 July 1460 and Warwick sent message to Buckingham that "at 2 o'clock I will speak with the King or I will die." 

Warwick outnumbered the royal army two to one and advanced at 2 o'clock into hard wind and rain. Warwick's men were met with a fierce hail of Lancastrian arrows but the rain had made the royal artillery near useless. March took the vanguard up to the ditch guarding the Lancastrian right flank and were assisted by Lancastrian Lord Grey of Ruthin who had previously been bribed by Warwick and March. 

The battle lasted just half an hour once the Yorkists were behind the Lancastrian front lines and the royal troops fled the king's defence. Henry VI had remained in his tent behind the front line and his four lieutenants of Buckingham, Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Egremont and Lord Beaumont, all died trying to stop the Yorkist approach.

Warwick kneels to the captured King Henry VI - depicted by Graham Turner

The Yorkist archer, Henry Mountfort, captured Henry VI and confined him to his royal tent until Warwick and March arrived. The earls knelt before the king and sought forgiveness after taking up arms against him once again in order to challenge those in his Council. The king had no choice but to accept and Warwick once again led the king back to London.

York arrived in London on 10 October 1460 and proclaimed his intentions by placing a hand on the throne and replied, "I know of no person in this realm that owes not to wait on me, rather than I of him" when asked by the Archbishop of Cantebury if York wished to see the king.

York's actions alienated Warwick and Salisbury. The Nevilles were angry at York for not consulting them and they remained hesitant about deposing the king. Warwick remonstrated with York in the pretender's Westminster lodgings and Rutland defended his father. March, fully aware of Warwick's power, calmed his younger brother, and a simmering Warwick left the apartments, speaking only with March.

Aware of the dissension in his own ranks, York detailed his hereditary claim to the throne to Parliament who passed an Act of Accord on 24 October 1460 that ordered York (and his heirs) as successors to the throne after Henry VI.

Margaret of Anjou had fled north with her now-disinherited son after her husband's defeat at Northampton and had travelled from Wales to Scotland. Margaret was negotiating terms with the Scottish king, James III, and Lancastrian forces began to build just south of the Scottish border.

York was disturbed by the news of a growing northern army and marshaled his troops by having March garrisoned to the west in the Welsh Marches whereas Warwick oversaw London. York, Salisbury and Rutland now marched north to meet the Lancastrians, and their deaths, at Battle of Wakefield.

Profile - Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, Part 1 1428-1458

Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, will forever be known as the "Kingmaker" due to the power he wielded during the Wars of the Roses.

EARL OF RICHES

The powerful magnate was born on 22 November 1428 to Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, and Alice Montague. The Nevilles had held Yorkshire strongholds since the 13th Century and Warwick's grandfather, Ralph, Earl of Westmorland,  joined the family to royal lineage with his marriage to Joan Beaufort, youngest daughter of John of Gaunt and Katherine Swynford.

Richard's betrothal at six years-of-age to Anne Beauchamp would prove to be highly fortuitous when the Beauchamp earldom of Warwick passed to him aged 20. Warwick owned land in 18 counties, from Cornwall to Yorkshire, with the greatest concentration in the West Midlands including the majestic Warwick Castle.

Warwick's early foe, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset on horseback

A land dispute in Glamorgan, Wales, with the Lancastrian favourite, Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, led Warwick to side with his uncle, Richard, Duke of York, in the tumultuous year of 1453.

There had been eight childless years of marriage between King of England Henry VI and his queen consort Margaret of Anjou and the birth of Prince Edward of Westminster in 1453 should have strengthened the reign of Henry VI. But the king's mental breakdown left the country without a ruler.  

Henry VI's illness led to the king not acknowledging the existence of his son and Warwick contributed to court rumours that the baby boy was a bastard son born through an adulterous affair between the queen and Somerset.

Somerset's disastrous command of France led to his imprisonment in the Tower of London by York, now acting as Lord Protector following the king's incapacity. The head of the king's council, backed by Warwick and his father, was able to bring order and looked to balance the Crown's finances but York's peers were wary of the duke's true intentions. 

York was soon to resign as Protector when Henry VI regained his senses on Christmas Day 1454 and Somerset's swift release from the Tower led to the Yorkist faction to retire to their estates. Warwick quickly began assembling an army along with York and Salisbury and the three nobles suspected that the royal court was moving against them after they received invitations for a Great Council meeting in Leicester that would discuss the king's safety 'against his enemies'.

IN COMMAND

York led his men south to intercept Henry VI's men before they reached Leicester and the two forces clashed at the First Battle of St. Albans. 

The decisive moment in the battle came when Warwick led his men through inn gardens and attacked Lord Thomas Clifford's men holding the line against York and Salisbury's charges. The surprise attack from behind Clifford created a fierce battle through the streets of St. Albans and Warwick soon had the advantage when the Lancastrians fled.

Warwick instructed his archers to target the area around the king's royal standard on St. Peters Street and arrows rained down on the Lancastrian nobles. Clifford, Somerset, and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland, lay dead whilst Humphrey Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, and the king were struck in the face by Warwick's arrows. The king sought refuge in a tanner's house and was soon discovered by York. The Yorkist commanders knelt in front of their king and pleaded forgiveness for their actions in that they never intended to harm the king.

York and Warwick discover Henry VI's whereabouts (depicted by Graham Turner)

Henry VI accepted and was escorted back to London alongside York and Salibury, with Warwick leading the way with the king's sword. After another bout of illness, Henry VI recovered in early 1456 and recognised York's influence in court by awarding Warwick Captain of Calais on 20 April 1456. Warwick courted favour with the town's powerful wool merchants with financial rewards and began to build a vital power base in England's last French domain.

POPULAR

Warwick's popularity in London increased when he stopped Italian traders from taking an unlimited supply of English wool after the Italians exploited a royal licence that was granted to them.

The queen looked to maneuver against the Yorkists by negotiating terms with her uncle, King of France Charles VII, in exchange for military support. The French seized on this and attacked the English south coast town of Sandwich and whispers spread throughout court that Margaret was behind the attack in order to antagonise Warwick across the Straits of Dover in Calais.

Warwick's new foe - Queen Margaret

Discontent rumbled throughout the land due to Margaret's attempts of conscription and the raging battle between the northern Neville and Percy families, led Henry VI to look for peace and initiated talks in early 1458. The arrival of Sir John Clifford, and other nobles whose fathers were slain at St. Albans, threatened to disrupt the talks but Warwick, York and Salisbury agreed to pay for a chantry in the town and further compensated the fallen families.

The talks culminated in a public display of harmony between Yorkist and Lancastrian supporters on Loveday, 24 March 1458. Henry VI led the procession of harmonious inter-family couples with Warwick, following behind York and the queen, knowing that peace would be short lived.